Author: phytodoer@aol.com

Setting Priorities for Surveillance

Despite Customs and Border Protection’s heroic efforts to target inspection of wood packaging shipments, based on histories of non-compliance of specific importers’ wood packaging (which I have often praised), the majority of larvae occurring in wood packaging would probably not be intercepted by inspectors. Instead, they would be transported to the cargo’s intended destinations (Wu et al. 2020). I described these problems in the preceding blog about the velvet longhorned beetle (VLB).

As I have noted in the past, CBD detects an average of 800 shipments per year with non-compliant wood packaging. That figure is less than five percent of the 16,500 infested shipping containers that might enter the country each year, based on the estimate by Haack et al., (2014) that one tenth of one percent of incoming wood packaging might be infected.

So there is always a need to improve surveillance for pests that inspection fails to catch. We can do that in at least the following ways:

1) better target detection efforts on the most likely areas where a pest might establish

2) improve collection and use of pest-related information to determine probable hosts, pathways of movement, and potential impacts.

Discovering How the Pest Moves

Sometimes improvements must be linked to individual species – although assisted by knowledge about species with similar life histories, e.g., similar hosts or flight periods or about its close relatives (see Ray’s development of a VLB lure; full citation at end of this blog).  

Other times, improvements might result from more generalizable adjustments.

For example, the pathway analysis undertaken by Krishnankutty and colleagues is one approach to improving geographic targetting. They analyzed aspects of  the velvet longhorned beetle’s pathways of introduction: 1) the types of imports associated with VLB-infested wood packaging; 2) ports where the beetle has been detected in recent years; plus 3) the presence and calculated probable volume of imports for the types of commercial operations considered likely to transport the beetle.

This analysis required access to detailed data from many sources. They included 1) interception data revealing the types of products most often associated with infested wood and the intended destinations of intercepted cargoes; 2) the North American Industry Classification System data listing locations of businesses likely to utilize these products; 3) the beetle’s climatic requirements; and 4) the locations of actual detections of VLB as revealed by Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey (CAPS) and other trapping programs.

Approaches to Learning More

Relying on traps to detect new pests has several advantages. These include the relative ease of scaling up to larger areas, and – sometimes — the ability to use general lures that attract a variety of insects. Some insects are attracted only, or primarily, to specific lures. Labor intensiveness (and expense) varies with how many traps must be deployed, whether the sites are easily accessible, difficulty extracting trapped insects, and the difficulty sorting the dead insects to find the species of interest.

A second approach is more labor-intensive and expensive, but it gives more information on the target species. This approach is to rear intercepted insect larvae in logs inside containers (to prevent escape) until they reach maturity and emerge. This approach facilitates determination of the species (it is difficult to identify larvae) … and allows an evaluation of feeding behavior – which translates into assessment of the damage caused to the tree.

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) began applying this survey method in 2006. CFIA collects logs from trees in declining health at high risk sites, such as industrial zones, current and historic landfills, and disposal facilities where large volumes of international wood packaging and dunnage are stored for extended periods of time. The logs are obtained from trees removed as part of municipal hazard tree removal programs. CFIA takes the logs to one of four research laboratories (in Toronto, Nova Scotia, Montreal, and North Vancouver), where they are placed in rearing chambers and allowed time to see what insects emerge. The logs are also dissected to reveal the type of damage caused by the insects – that is, determine whether insect was cause of tree mortality [Bullas-Appleton et al. 2014) .

The United States is applying the same approach, but less systematically.

APHIS developed a short-term project aimed at addressing two challenges: identifying larvae found in wood packaging to the species level (larvae intercepted at the border are often identified only to family); and gaining valuable information about the failure of currently required phytosanitary treatments as regards particular genera and species.

In a cooperative project begun in 2012, the DHS Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP) collected live larvae of Cerambycidae and Buprestidae (and, since September of 2015, Siricidae), intercepted during inspection at initially six, later 11 U.S. ports.

These larvae were sent to an APHIS containment facility where many were reared to adults. Upon emergence, adult specimens were killed and identified by experts working for the National Identification Service. DNA barcodes of dead larvae and the reared adults were defined and compared and any  new information was added to public genetic databases. These DNA barcodes have enhanced the capacity of anyone involved in pest interception and detection to rapidly identify larval stages. In 2017, APHIS determined that it had detected almost the full range of species that might be transported in wood packaging, and stopped funding the project.

As of June 2017, the APHIS project had received 1,289 intercepted wood borers (1,052 cerambycids, 192 buprestids and 45 siricids) from 45 countries (See Nadel et. al 2017). The extensive analysis of velvet longhorned beetle described in my previous blog link was greatly assisted by the resulting data.

Years before the APHIS project, USDA Forest Service wanted to try applying rearing techniques to aid early detection of insects in the country. At first, the scientists asked residents of Washington, D.C. to identify street trees that appeared to be infested with pests. Those trees were then cut and sections placed in rearing containers to allow scientists to determine what was causing the problem (Harvard Science).

The project was transferred in 2015 to Boston and New York. The Boston location is an arboretum; the advantage of this site is that it has 1) a diversity of tree species; 2) trained staff; and 3) detailed records of most trees on-site (Harvard Science). Project scientists now accept material from stressed, diseased, or dying trees. This material is loaded into sealed barrels and allowed two years for insects to emerge. Since 2015, project scientists have examined 8,605 beetles comprising 223 species. These studies have resulted in 16 new state records, records of some Scolytinae that are rarely collected from traditional trapping methods; documentation of  new host associations; and discovery of one previously undescribed species — Agrilus sp. 9895 (See DiGirolomo, Bohne and Dodds, 2019).

SOURCES

Bullas-Appleton, E., T. Kimoto, J.J. Turgeon. 2014. Discovery of Trichoferus campestris (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in Ontario, Canada and first host record in North America. Can. Entomol. 146: 111–116 (2014).

Marc DiGirolomo, Michael Bohne, Kevin Dodds. 2019. Presentation to the 19^th Annual Meeting of the Continental Dialogue on Non-Native Forest Insects and Diseases https://continentalforestdialogue.files.wordpress.com/2019/12/bohne.continentaldialogue1.pdf  USFS – Durham, NH – 19^th Dialogue meeting

Haack, R. A. 2006. Exotic bark- and wood-boring Coleoptera in the United States: recent establishments and interceptions. Can. J. For. Res. 36: 269–288.

Haack RA, Britton KO, Brockerhoff EG, Cavey JF, Garrett LJ, et al. (2014) Effectiveness of the International Phytosanitary Standard ISPM No. 15 on Reducing Wood Borer Infestation Rates in Wood Packaging Material Entering the United States. PLoS ONE 9(5): e96611. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096611

Krishnankutty, S.M., K. Bigsby, J. Hastings, Y. Takeuchi, Y. Wu, S.W. Lingafelter, H. Nadel, S.W. Myers, and A.M. Ray. 2020. Predicting Establishment Potential of an Invasive Wood-Boring Beetle, Trichoferus campestris (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in the United States. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 113(2), 2020, 88-99.  https://doi.org/10.1093/aesa/saz051    

Nadel, H. S. Meyers, J. Molongoski, Y. Wu, S. Lingafelter, A. Ray, S. Krishnankutty, A. Taylor.  2017. Identification of Port Interceptions in Wood Packing Material Cumulative Progress Report, April 2012 – June 2017

Ray, A.M., J. Francese, Y. Zou, K. Watson, D.J Crook, and J.G. Millar. 2019. Isolation and identification of a male-produced aggregation sex pheromone for the velvet longhorned beetle, Trichoferus campestris. Scientific Reports 2019. 9:4459. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41047-x

Posted by Faith Campbell

We welcome comments that supplement or correct factual information, suggest new approaches, or promote thoughtful consideration. We post comments that disagree with us — but not those we judge to be not civil or inflammatory.

Many highly damaging wood-borers have been introduced to North America in wood packaging.

One woodborer, a beetle in the Cerambycidae, has been introduced multiple times to the United States — both before and after implementation of ISPM#15, the international regulations designed to stop such introductions. This is the velvet longhorned beetle (VLB) (Trichoferus (=Hesperophanes) campestris). Independent scientists have recently documented how VLB is introduced and where it is established.

I first blogged about the VLB three years ago. At that time, I asked why APHIS had not undertaken a quarantine and other actions to contain or eradicate the beetle, which was clearly established in an orchard in Utah (Wu et al. 2020; full source citations appear at the end of the blog). Now, the VLB is established in three states and has been detected in many more (details below).

It appears that the VLB will not cause significant damage. I hope this proves true, because it is certainly travelling here on a regular basis. While the most detailed study of the VLB’s potential impact in North America is not yet complete, early indications are that the beetle attacks mostly dying or dead trees.

A Widespread and Adaptable Pest

The VLB is native to China, Central Asia, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, and Russia. It has also been recorded in several European countries. The risk of introduction is broader, however. VLB has established throughout the Middle East and Europe, as well as parts of South and Central America. U.S. officials have intercepted live VLB individuals in shipments originating from these introduced populations, i.e., Brazil, Italy, Mexico, and Spain (Ray et al. 2019).

Wu et al. (2020) studied the genetic diversity of VLB specimens collected by in the United States by 1) trapping at several locations and 2) by testing those intercepted in wood packaging at U.S. ports. The scientists found high levels of diversity between and even within each limited geographic population. These results indicate that VLB has been introduced numerous times via the wood packaging pathway. They also found some evidence that introduced VLB populations might be expanding so it is important to understand pathways of spread within the country (Wu et al. 2020).

Where VLB is in the United States

The VLB is now officially considered to be established in Cook and DuPage counties, IL; Salt Lake County, UT; and Milwaukee, WI. [Krishnankutty et al. 2020).

However, adults have been detected in 26 counties in 13 additional states, plus Puerto Rico, since 1992. Since a trapping survey for woodborers began in 1999, this joint federal and state Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey (CAPS) has trapped VLB in Colorado (2013), Illinois (2009), New Jersey (2007, 2013), New York (2014, 2016–2018), Ohio (2009, 2017–2019), Pennsylvania (2016), Rhode Island (2006), and Utah (2010, 2012–2019). (Krishnankutty et al. 2020). Also, Oregon detected VLB in 2019 (Oregon Department of Agriculture 2019).

Interceptions in Wood Packaging

The velvet longhorned beetle has been detected frequently in wood packaging since at least the middle 1980s (when APHIS began recording interceptions) (Haack 2006). (Haack’s study covered 1985-2000, before implementation of the International Standard on Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) #15.)

APHIS’ official interception database listed 60 separate interceptions of VLB in the more recent ten plus-year period June 1997 – November 2017 – which overlaps pre- and post-implementation of ISPM#15. Eighty-eight percent of these interceptions were in wood packaging. Seven percent were in wood products. The remaining seven percent were in passenger baggage or unidentified products.

As has been the case generally since ISPM#15 was adopted, a high percentage — 65.4% — of the intercepted wood packaging during this period bore the mark certifying compliance with the ISPM#15 treatment requirements. Unsurprisingly, China was the origin of 81.6% of the intercepted shipments infested by pests (Krishnankutty et al. 2020).

In the most recent data studied, all from the period after implementation of ISPM#15 — 2012 – 2017, 28 VLB were found in analyses of a sample of wood packaging (Nadel et al. 2017). (I will discuss this study and other detection tools in a separate blog.)

In agreement with earlier findings, the most high-risk imports were determined to be wood packaging for stone, cement, ceramic tile, metal, machinery, manufactured wood products (furniture, decorative items, new pallets, etc.), and wood-processing facilities (Krishnankutty et al. 2020).

These findings largely confirm what we already know about the wood packaging pathway and high levels of non-compliance with ISPM#15 by Chinese shippers. What is APHIS going to do about this well-documented problem? APHIS certainly shouldn’t ignore these findings on the grounds that this particular wood-borer is less damaging than many others. Any chink in our phytosanitary programs that allows transport and entry of VLB can – does! – allow introduction of other woodborers.

The VLB also has been found in rustic furniture – often after the furniture has been sold to consumers. I discussed a 2016 example of this pathways in my February 2017 blog. Krishnankutty et al. (2020) suggest other possible pathways are wooden decorative items and nursery stock, particularly penjing (artificially dwarfed trees and shrubs).

Krishnankutty et al. (2020) note the importance of proper disposal of wood packaging once the cargo reaches its destination. Have any state phytosanitary officials enacted regulations targetting this source of invaders?

The Risk to North America’s Forests Is Unknown

A climate-based model described in Krishnankutty et al. (2020) suggests that climate appears to be suitable for VLB across much of the continental United States, northern Mexico, and southern Canada. Only Florida, southern Texas, and high elevation and coastal regions of the western United States and Mexico states are unlikely to support the velvet longhorned beetle, based on climate. (The study did not consider whether host trees would be present.)

Asian and European sources list a broad host range consisting of at least 40 genera of conifers, hardwoods, and fruit trees (Krishnankutty et al. 2020). Still, as noted above, new studies seem to indicate a minimal impact on healthy trees in North America. Indeed, the principal Utah outbreak is in an orchard littered with pruned material.

With so many suitable hosts across so much of the country, the potential for damage is frightening.

Setting Priorities for Surveillance

The availability of data on both port interceptions and multiple detected outbreaks provides an opportunity to test procedures for carrying out early detection surveys. Improving the efficacy of early detection is critical since – as Wu et al. (2020) note – — the majority of infesting larvae would probably not be intercepted and would subsequently be transported to the cargo’s intended destinations. This is despite CBP’s best efforts to target inspection of wood packaging shipments based on shippers’ histories of non-compliance, targeting that I strongly support.

In response to this concern, Krishnankutty et al. (2020) analyzed pathways of introduction – 1) the types of imports associated with VLB-infested wood packaging, 2) ports where the beetle has been detected in recent years, plus 3) the presence and calculated probable volume of imports of types of commercial operations considered likely to transport the beetle. These included wholesale and retail sellers of products known to be risky and businesses involved with wood fuel processing, log hauling, logging, and milling of saw lumber (Krishnankutty et al. 2020).

They could test the value of this approach by comparing the calculated “intended destination counties” declared at import to actual detections of T. campestris. VLB was detected (by CAPS or other surveys) in either the same or a neighboring county for 40% of the intended destination counties.

This seems to be a high introduction rate; detections will probably rise now that a species-specific lure is available. What could this mean for the establishment rate? Is anyone going to repeat the comparisons to track such changes? Unfortunately, we lack sufficient data to compare the VLB establishment rate (whatever it turns out to be) to the rate for other wood-borers.

Focusing on their original intentions, Krishnankutty and colleagues considered the 40% correlation between intended destinations and VLB detections to be sufficiently rewarding to be one basis for setting priorities for surveys (Krishnankutty et al. 2020).

Krishnankutty et al. (2020) say that recognition of three established populations and widespread destinations of potentially infested wood packaging to climatically suitable areas points to the need to determine whether additional populations are already established – or might soon become so. I add this need is further supported by the frequent detections of low numbers of the VLB in at least seven other states (see above). They call for enhanced surveillance to determine where the VLB is.

Improved surveillance is now facilitated by Dr. Ann Ray’s identification of a specific pheromone that can be synthesized in a lab and used to lure VLB to traps. The pheromone is much more effective in attracting VLB than previous food-like lures used by CAPS as general-purpose attractants for wood-boring insects.APHIS had provided about $50,000 over four years from the Plant Pest and Disease Management and Disaster Prevention program (which receives funding through the Farm Bill) to Dr. Ray’s search for the species-specific pheromone.

I will discuss detection efforts in a separate blog.

SOURCES

Bullas-Appleton, E., T. Kimoto, J.J. Turgeon. 2014. Discovery of Trichoferus campestris (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in Ontario, Canada and first host record in North America. Can. Entomol. 146: 111–116 (2014).

Haack, R. A. 2006. Exotic bark- and wood-boring Coleoptera in the United States: recent establishments and interceptions. Can. J. For. Res. 36: 269–288.

Krishnankutty, S.M., K. Bigsby, J. Hastings, Y. Takeuchi, Y. Wu, S.W. Lingafelter, H. Nadel, S.W. Myers, and A.M. Ray. 2020. Predicting Establishment Potential of an Invasive Wood-Boring Beetle, Trichoferus campestris (Coleoptera:) in the United States. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, XX(X), 2020, 1–12

Nadel, H. S. Meyers, J. Molongoski, Y. Wu, S. Lingafelter, A. Ray, S. Krishnankutty, A. Taylor. 2017. Identification of Port Interceptions in Wood Packing Material Cumulative Progress Report, April 2012 – June 2017

Oregon Department of Agriculture, Plant Protection & Conservation Programs. 2019. Annual Report 2019.

 Ray, A.M., J. Francese, Y. Zou, K. Watson, D.J Crook, and J.G. Millar. 2019. Isolation and identification of a male-produced aggregation sex pheromone for the velvet longhorned beetle, Trichoferus campestris. Scientific Reports 2019. 9:4459. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41047-x

Wu, Y., S.M. Krishnankutty, K.A. Vieira, B. Wang. 2020. Invasion of Trichoferus campestris (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) into the United States characterized by high levels of genetic diversity and recurrent intros. Biological Invasions Volume 22, pages1309–1323(2020)

Posted by Faith Campbell

We welcome comments that supplement or correct factual information, suggest new approaches, or promote thoughtful consideration. We post comments that disagree with us — but not those we judge to be not civil or inflammatory.

This month is the 14^th anniversary of United States’ implementation of International Standard for Phytosanitary Measure (ISPM) #15 with the goal of reducing the risk of pest introduction via wood packaging. 

Implementation of the international standard has apparently reduced the “approach rate” of pests in wood packaging, but not sufficiently (See my previous blog).

In this International Year of Plant Health (USDA/APHIS full citation at end of this blog), it is essential to understand how well the wood packaging program is working. Evaluating its current efficacy is especially important for protecting our forests. One key scientific society recognizes this: organizers of  the Entomological Society of America’s Grand Challenges Summit in Orlando next November have chosen wood packaging as the theme.  

Unfortunately, information essential to evaluate the efficacy of ISPM#15 – both worldwide and as implemented by USDA APHIS – is not yet available.

Our most up-to-date information on U.S. enforcement is from Kevin Harriger, Executive Director for the Agriculture Programs and Trade Liaison office, U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). In his report to the annual meeting of the Continental Dialogue of Non-Native Forest Insects and Diseases in November 2019, he stated that over the past three years, CBP detected a regulated pest, on average, in 30% of wood packaging intercepted because it was not compliant with ISPM#15. Unfortunately, Mr. Harriger did not provide the actual number of shipments inspected or seized.

The absence of specific numbers means I cannot compare the 2019 findings to previous years. My calculation of Mr. Harriger’s data provided to the Dialogue in previous years showed that over the nine-year period Fiscal Years 2010 through 2018, CBP detected 9,500 consignments harboring a regulated pest. Ninety-seven percent of the shipments found to be infested with a pest bore the ISPM#15 mark. The wood packaging was from nearly all trading countries. CBP staff say the reason for this high proportion of pests in wood packaging is fraud.

A European study of imports of stone from China over the period 2013-2016 focused on a recognized high-risk commodity. Nevertheless, the Europeans reached the same finding: 97.5% of consignments that harbored pests bore the ISPM#15 mark. They concluded that the ISPM-15 mark was of little value in predicting whether harmful organisms were present (Eyre et al. 2018).

There is considerable dispute about which categories of packaging are most likely to be infested. The categories are pallets, crates, spools for cable, and dunnage (wood used to brace cargo and prevent it from shifting). Unfortunately, Mr. Harriger shed no light on that issue. He did report that 78% of non-compliant shipments over the last three years was in packaging associated with “miscellaneous cargo”, e.g., machinery, including electronics; metals; tile and decorative stone (such as marble or granite counter tops). This association has been true for decades (see Haack et al. 2014). Another 20% of the non-compliances were associated with fruit and vegetable cargoes. This probably reflects the combination of large volumes of produce imports from Mexico and that country’s poor record of complying with wood packaging requirements.

It has been reported that in recent years, CBP inspectors have repeatedly found pests in dunnage bearing the ISPM#15 mark and associated with “break bulk” cargo (goods that must be loaded individually; not transported in containers or in holds as with oil or grain). Ships that carry this sort of. Problems appear to be acute in Houston. While most of the criticism of non-compliant wood packaging refers to countries in Asia and the Americas, at least one of the Houston importers obtains its dunnage in Europe.

There is even a question about the volume in incoming goods. CBD says that approximately 13 million loaded containers enter the country every year by rail, truck, air, or sea.  However, my calculation from U.S. Department of Transportation data (see reference) was that more than 22 million shipping containers entered the U.S. via maritime trade in 2017.

In 2017, CBP announced a new policy under which it will assess a penalty on each shipment in which the wood packaging does not comply with ISPM#15. Previously, no penalty was assessed until a specific importer had amassed five violations over a twelve-month period.

FY2019 was thus the second year under the new policy. I had hoped that Mr. Harriger would provide information on the number of penalties assessed and any indications that importers are strengthening their efforts to ensure that wood packaging complies. However, he did not.

He did report that CBP has expanded outreach to the trade. The goal is reducing all types of non-compliance – lack of documentation, pest presence, etc. in both wood packaging and shipping containers. Outreach includes awareness campaigns targetting trade, industry, affiliated associations, CBP employees, and international partners.

Still, authorities cannot know whether the actual “approach rate” of pests in wood packaging has changed in response to CBP’s strengthened enforcement because they lack a scientifically valid study. The most recent study – that reported in Haack et al. 2014 – relied on data up to 2009 – more than a decade ago. It indicated an approach rate of approximately 0.1% (Haack et al. 2014).

Unfortunately, USDA APHIS has not yet accepted researchers’ offer to update this study.

We do know that pests continue to be present in wood packaging 14 years after the U.S. put ISPM#15 into force.

I call for:

1) Determining the relative importance of possible causes of the persistent pest presence problem – fraud, accidental misapplication of treatments, or other failures of treatment;

2) Enhanced enforcement by APHIS as well as CBP;

3) Stepped up efforts to help US importers by APHIS and  the Foreign Agricultural Service– by, e.g., providing information on which foreign suppliers of wood packaging and dunnage have good vs. poor records; conveying importers’ complaints about specific shipments to the exporting countries’ National Plant Protection Organizations (NPPOs), such as Departments of Agriculture;

4) Raising pressure on foreign NPPOs and the International Plant Protection Convention more generally to ascertain the specific reasons ISPM#15 is failing and to fix the problems identified.

Alernative Materials – Plastic!

I have also advocated for shifting at least some wood packaging – e.g., pallets and some crates – to alternative materials. For example, USDA APHIS could require exporters with bad records to use crates and pallets made from materials other than solid wood, e.g., plastic, metal, or oriented strand board. Or companies could make that shift themselves to avoid phytosanitary enforcement issues and penalties.

People recoil from the idea of using plastic and there are increasing concerns about the breakdown of plastics into tiny fragments, especially in water. But it’s also true that the world is drowning in plastic waste. Surely some of this could be recovered and made into crates and pallets with environmentally sound technology.

The Washington Post reported in November that an Israeli company is converting all kinds of trash – including food waste – into plastic, and molding that plastic into various items, including packing crates.

UBQ Materials takes in tons of rotting food, plastic bags, dirty paper, castoff bottles and containers, even broken toys. It then sorts, grinds, chops, shreds, cleans and heats it mess into first a slurry, then tiny pseudo-plastic pellets that can be made into everyday items like trays and packing crates.

Another Israeli company, Plasgad, uses plastic to make pallets, crates and other products.

Some who were skeptical now are more interested, including the president of the International Solid Waste Association  and the chief executive of the Plastic Expert Group. 

So – can we address three environmental problems at the same time – mountains of waste, methane gas releases contributing to climate change, and one (important) pathway for the movement of tree-killing pests?

SOURCES

Eyre, D., R. Macarthur, R.A. Haack, Y. Lu, and H. Krehan. 2018. Variation in Inspection Efficacy by Member States of SWPM Entering EU. Journal of Economic Entomology, 111(2), 2018, 707–715)

Haack RA, Britton KO, Brockerhoff EG, Cavey JF, Garrett LJ, et al. (2014) Effectiveness of the International Phytosanitary Standard ISPM No. 15 on Reducing Wood Borer Infestation Rates in Wood Packaging Material Entering the United States. PLoS ONE 9(5): e96611. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096611

Harriger, K., Department of Homeland Security Bureau of Customs and Border Protection, presentation to the Continental Dialogue on Non-Native Forest Insects and Diseases, November 2017.

U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration, U.S. Waterborne Foreign Container Trade by U.S. Customs Ports (2000 – 2017) Imports in Twenty-Foot Equivalent Units (TEUs) – Loaded Containers Only.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Press Release No. 0133.20, January 27, 2020

Posted by Faith Campbell

We welcome comments that supplement or correct factual information, suggest new approaches, or promote thoughtful consideration. We post comments that disagree with us — but not those we judge to be not civil or inflammatory.