wood packaging – Page 4 – Center for Invasive Species Prevention

Wood packaging – Progress? or Paralysis by Analysis?

This February marks 16 years since APHIS began full implementation of ISPM#15. I have blogged often about the failure of ISPM#15 to curtail the risk associated with wood packaging; scroll below the chronological list of blogs to the “categories”, click on “wood packaging”. The best summary of the issues is found in a blog posted in September 2017.

As I have reported in many previous blogs, U.S. imports – especially those from Asia – have been rising since August 2020. Thus, January through October 2021, U.S. imports from Asia are 10.5% higher than the same period in 2020 (Mongelluzzo Dec. 9, 2021). Port officials expect import volumes from Asia to remain high in the first half of 2022, with perhaps a pause in February linked to Asian New Year celebrations (Mongelluzzo Dec. 15 2021). Shipping tonnage devoted to carrying goods from Asia to North America rose by 17% when one compares 2020 to 2021 (Lynch and Wadekar 2021).

These increases are important because of the history of pest introductions in wood packaging from Asia.

This increase is seen most acutely at the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, which handle about 50% of all U.S. imports from Asia. Such imports during January – November 2021 were 19.4% higher than the same period in 2020; 21.2% higher than during the same period in 2019 (Mongelluzzo Dec. 15 2021).

The rise in imports – and associated pest risk — is not limited to southern California. At the largest port on the East coast – New York/New Jersey – import volumes through October were 20% higher than the same period a year ago. The port is also receiving a higher number of large ships – those carrying 9,000 or more containers (Angell Dec. 22, 2021).

We do not know how many of these containers hold the heaviest commodities most often associated with wood packaging infested by insects — machinery (including electronics); metals; tile and decorative stone (such as marble or granite counter tops). I see many potential links to the COVID-prompted “home improvement” boom. I wonder whether furniture should be included here …

wood packaging associated with stone; photo courtesy of Canadian Food Inspection Agency

1. 2021 Data on Violations

A recent webinar sponsored by The Nature Conservancy’s Continental Dialogue on Non-Native Forest Insects and Diseases and the Entomological Society of America revealed important new information on the pest risk associated with these imports. (Presentations have been posted on the Dialogue’s website). Several of the presentation have particularly significant implications for protecting the US from pests.

Jared Franklin, acting director for agriculture enforcement for DHS’s Customs and Border Protection (CBP), reported that pest detections and shipper violations in Fiscal Year (FY) 2021 follow patterns set earlier. There is, however, an interesting decline in numbers of violations despite enhanced inspection intensity. When the number of incoming air passengers crashed because of COVID-19, CBP assigned inspectors to cargo instead.

Type of violation	FY2018	FY2019	FY2020	FY2021
Lack ISPM#15 mark	1,662	1,825	1,662	1,459
Live quarantine pest found	756	747	509	548
TOTAL VIOLATIONS	2,418	2,572	2,171	2,007

Unfortunately, in FY2016 CBP stopped recording whether pests were detected on marked or unmarked SWPM.

As usual, most of the pests were detected in wood packaging accompanying miscellaneous cargo. Also, as usual, the most commonly detected pests are Cerambycid beetles. During a discussion of why Cerambycids outnumber Scolytids, Bob Haack pointed out that most bark beetles are eliminated by the debarking required by ISPM#15.

2. Updating a Key Study of the Wood Packaging Pathway

Bob Haack revealed that he has received permission to update his earlier landmark study aimed at determining the arrival rate of pests in wood packaging (see Haack et al., 2014). I have long advocated for an update. All my comment about the wood packaging risk have – perforce – relied on this now outdated report. Bob hopes to have results in a few months.

This time, he will work with Toby Petrice (USFS) and Jesse Hardin and Barney Caton (APHIS). While the 2014 study focused on changes in approach rates resulting from U.S.’ implementation of ISPM#15, the new study will presumably uncover current levels of compliance. The authors will use more than 73,000 new port inspection records to detect trends from 2010 through 2020, as well as the original database of about 35,000 inspections made during 2004-2009.

Bob notes that there have been significant changes in ISPM#15 since 2009. These include: a) a requirement that wood be debarked before treatment; b) approval of new treatments (dielectric heat in 2013 and sulphuryl fluoride in 2018); and c) new official definitions of “reuse,” “repair,” and “remanufacturer”.

Besides discovering overall levels of compliance, Bob and colleagues will probably select some aspects of the wood packaging pathway for specific analysis. For example, Dialogue participants want to know whether dunnage has a higher interception rate than pallets. Also, the earlier study included only wood packaging that bore the ISPM mark. This new research might compare live pest interception rates on marked versus unmarked wood.

3) A Study to Improve ISPM#15

Erin Cadwalader reported on the Entomological Society’s Grand Challenge, particularly the request from APHIS that the Society provide guidance on improving ISPM#15. This request was made in 2019; subsequent efforts to conduct a broad scoping process have been complicated and delayed by COVID-19. The goal is to determine what area of effort would lead to either 1) the highest reduction in pest incidence; or 2) the best ISPM#15 compliance.

ESA’s preliminary proposal aims to evaluate the risk associated with various types of wood packaging by analyzing data from five ports over a period of five years. Webinar participants discussed the proposal, especially trying to determine why data already collected by APHIS and CBP – specifically via Agriculture Quarantine Inspection Monitoring (AQIM) – are not adequate to support the study. Another question is whether it is useful for ESA investigators to attempt to rear insects from wood packaging rather than rely on APHIS’ identifications using molecular techniques. Erin noted that some insects – probably particularly small wood borers – might escape detection by inspectors but show up when the wood is placed in rearing chambers.

There will be further discussion of the study’s scope and methodology at the Society’s annual meeting in Autumn 2023 near Washington, D.C. (The 2022 meeting will be in Vancouver; USDA officials rarely get permission to travel to meetings outside the U.S.) ESA estimates that the study will take five years and be completed in 2028.

I am concerned that APHIS might not act on the basis of Bob Haack’s findings as soon as they are available. If they wait for completion of the ESA study, it could be at least six years from now before action is even proposed. I hope that if Haack and colleagues uncover persistent inadequacies in ISPM#15 implementation, APHIS will act unilaterally to address the problem – at least as regards the threat to the U.S. The ESA study might then become the foundation for revising the overall standard per se, that is, the entire world trading system.

Also, APHIS has already carried out a focused study of pests in wood packaging. How can their findings be incorporated into APHIS’ decisions so as to expedite action?

Wu et al. (2017) proved the efficacy of DNA identification tools and that serious pest species continued (at that time) to be present in wood packaging. Krishnankutty et al. (2020) found that 84% of interceptions occurred in wood belonging to only three families: pine, spruce, and poplar. Shipments with coniferous wood came about equally from Europe, Asia, and Mexico. Wood packaging made from poplars came primarily from China. Most of the pests in hardwood were polyphagous, and were considered to pose a higher risk. Pests in softwood samples were mostly oligophagous (feed on two or more genera in the same family). I presume that these findings prompted the studies by Mech et al. and Schulz et al.

As has been true in most studies, pest detections were often associated with shipments of heavy items, such as stone, ceramics, and terracotta; vehicles and vehicle parts; machinery, tools, and hardware; and metal. A high proportion (87%) of the wood packaging bore the ISPM15 mark, also as usual. (Data provided by CBP in past Dialogue meetings showed an even higher proportion of pest-infested wood to be marked.)

Conclusion

Clearly, programs aimed at curtaining the pest risk associated with wood packaging have not been sufficiently effective. I hope APHIS’ approval of Bob Haack’s study and agreement with the Entomological Society indicates a new willingness to understand why and take actions to fix the problems.

SOURCES

Haack, R.A., K.O. Britton, E.G. Brockerhoff, J.F. Cavey, L.J. Garrett. 2014. Effectiveness of the International Phytosanitary Standard ISPM No. 15 on Reducing Wood Borer Infestation Rates in Wood Packaging Material Entering the United States. PLoS ONE 9(5): e96611. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096611

Krishnankutty, S., H. Nadel, A.M. Taylor, M.C. Wiemann, Y. Wu, S.W. Lingafelter, S.W. Myers, and A.M. Ray. 2020. Identification of Tree Genera Used in the Construction of Solid Wood-Packaging Materials That Arrived at U.S. Ports Infested With Live Wood-Boring Insects. Journal of Economic Entomology 2020, 1 – 12

Lynch, D.J. and N. Wadekar. 2021. “Africa left with fallout of US supply chain crisis”. The Washington Post. December 17, 2021.

Mongelluzzo, B. Dec 09, 2021. New long-dwell container fee bearing fruit in Oakland https://www.joc.com/port-news/terminal-operators/new-long-dwell-container-fee-bearing-fruit-oakland_20211209.html?utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Ports%2012%2F15%2F21%20%20_PC00000_e-production_E-121985_TF_1215_0900&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Eloqua

Mongelluzzo, B. Dec. 15 2021. LA port expects imports to surge further in Q2https://www.joc.com/port-news/us-ports/la-port-expects-imports-surge-further-q2_20211215.html?utm_source=Eloqua&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Daily%2012/16/21_PC00000_e-production_E-122356_KB_1216_0617

Wu,Y., N.F. Trepanowski, J.J. Molongoski, P.F. Reagel, S.W. Lingafelter, H. Nadel1, S.W. Myers & A.M. Ray. 2017. Identification of wood-boring beetles (Cerambycidae and Buprestidae) intercepted in trade-associated solid wood packaging material using DNA barcoding and morphology. Scientific Reports 7:40316

Posted by Faith Campbell

We welcome comments that supplement or correct factual information, suggest new approaches, or promote thoughtful consideration. We post comments that disagree with us — but not those we judge to be not civil or inflammatory.

For a detailed discussion of the policies and practices that have allowed these pests to enter and spread – and that do not promote effective restoration strategies – review the Fading Forests report at http://treeimprovement.utk.edu/FadingForests.htm

New Study on Forest Carbon and Pests: The Picture is Ugly

lodgepole pines killed by mountain pine beetle in British Columbia; photo courtesy of Wikipedia

Natural systems, especially forests, could provide as much as 37% of the near-term mitigation necessary to meet Paris global climate goals. In the US, conservation, restoration, and improved land management could provide carbon sequestration equivalent to an estimated 21% of current net annual emissions.

However, the current U.S. forest carbon sink, which includes soils and standing and downed wood as well as live trees, might be in jeopardy due to increasing levels of disturbance, conversion, and/or declining sequestration rates in old growth stands.

Insects and plant diseases are one such disturbance agent. Acting alone or in combination with other forest stressors, they can damage or kill large numbers of trees in short periods of time, thereby reducing carbon sequestration and increasing emissions of stored carbon through decomposition of wood in dead or injured trees.

Historically, native and introduced insects and diseases have impacted an estimated 15% of the total U.S. forest cover annually. This impact is likely to increase. One study (Fei et al., 2019) found that an estimated 41% of the live forest biomass in the contiguous U.S. could be impacted by the 15 most damaging introduced pests already established in the U.S. Continuing introductions of new pests and exacerbated effects of native pests associated with climate change portend worsening losses of live trees. These rising impact of pests, combined with more frequent and severe fires and other forest disturbances, are likely to negate efforts to improve forests’ carbon sequestration capacity.

Sources of information about introduced pests’ impacts is available from, inter alia Campbell and Schlarbaum Fading Forests II and III, Lovett et al 2016, Poland et al. 2021, many blogs on this site, and pests’ profiles posed here under “invasive species” tab. Chapter 4 of Poland et al. (2021) provides a summary of what is known about interactions between invasive species and climate change – both climate impacts on bioinvaders and bioinvaders’ effect on carbon sequestration.

The United States and other major polluting countries have certain advantages. Their strong economies have the scientific and financial resources needed to implement effective invasive species prevention and forest management strategies. At the same time, many of them receive the most new forest pests – because they are major importers. These introduced pests pose the most serious and urgent near-term ecological threat to their forests and all the ecosystem services forests provide.

So, reducing insect and disease impacts to forests can simultaneously serve several goals—carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and protecting the myriad economic and societal benefits of forests. See the recent IUCN report on threatened tree species.

A Major New Study

A new study by Quirion et al. (2021) takes another step in quantifying the threat to U.S. forests’ ability to sequester carbon by analyzing data from National Forest Inventory plots. Unfortunately, the re-measurement data for the period 2001 – 2019 are not available in the NFI for the Rocky Mountain states, which represents a critical data gap in the NFI program. This gap might not have had a significant impact on the national findings, however, because while the insect damage level (measured by an earlier inventory round) was quite severe in the Rocky Mountain States, the relatively slow growth of trees in that region means carbon sequestration rates are low.

Forest stand productivity – and carbon sequestration — will typically decline immediately after pest outbreaks, then recover or even increase beyond pre-outbreak levels depending on the productivity and maximum achieved biomass of replacement plant species and related soil characteristics. However, when prevalence of the disturbance increases, by, for example, more frequent pest outbreaks, carbon stocks in standing trees and sequestration rates can be reduced for extended periods.

Findings

Nationally, insects and diseases have decreased carbon sequestration by live trees on forest land by 12.83 teragrams carbon per year. This equals ~ 9% of the contiguous states’ total annual forest carbon sequestration and equivalent to the CO₂ emissions from over 10 million passenger vehicles driven for one year.
This estimate includes the impacts of both native and introduced insects and diseases, because the NFI database does not distinguish between them.
Insect-caused mortality had a larger impact than disease-caused mortality (see below). Forest plots recently impacted by insect disturbance sequestered on average 69% less carbon in live trees than plots with no recent disturbance. Plots recently impacted by disease disturbance sequestered on average 28% less carbon in live trees than plots with no recent disturbance.
Ecoprovinces in which the greatest annual reductions in live tree carbon sequestration due to pests were the Southern Rocky Mountain Steppe, Cascade Mixed Forest, Midwest Broadleaf Forest, and Laurentian Mixed Forest. (Ecoprovinces are outlined – but not named – in Quirion et al. 2021; more complete information is provided in the supplementary material.)

If this study had been carried out in the 1920’s, when chestnut blight and white pine blister rust were spreading across vast areas and killing large trees, the impact of diseases would have been much higher. Today, the most widespread impacts of diseases are on either small trees (e.g., redbay succumbing to laurel wilt) or slow-growing, high-elevation trees (e.g., whitebark and limber pine to white pine blister rust). As long as no equivalents of those earlier diseases are introduced, insects will probably continue to have the larger impacts.

western white pine killed by blister rust; photo from National Archives

Quirion et al. 2021 note that their estimates should be considered conservative. The USFS’s inventory records only major disturbances. That is, when mortality or damage is equal to or exceeds 25% of trees or 50% of an individual tree species’ count on an area of at least 0.4 ha. This criterion largely excludes less severe pest disturbances, including those from which trees recover but which might have temporary negative effects on carbon sequestration.

The study’s authors note that their work has important limitations. The dearth of data from the Rocky Mountain states is one. Other factors not considered include transfers of carbon from live biomass to dead organic matter, soils, and salvaged or preemptively harvested wood products. As trees die from pests or diseases, their carbon becomes dead wood and decays slowly, producing a lag in the carbon emissions to the atmosphere. A small fraction of the carbon in dead wood might be incorporated into soil organic matter, further delaying the emissions. A full accounting of the carbon consequences of pests and diseases would require assessment of these lags, probably through a modeling study.

affects of mountan pine beetle on lodgepole pine in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado photo from Wikimedia

Actions to Maintain Carbon Sequestration

Quirion et al. (2021) outline several actions that would help protect the ability of America’s forests to sequester carbon. These suggestions address both native and introduced pests, since both contribute to the threatened reduction in capacity.

Concerning native pests, the authors call for improved forest management, but warn that measures must be tailored to species and environmental context.

Concerning introduced insects and pathogens, Quirion et al. (2021) call for strengthening international trade policies and phytosanitary standards, as well as their enforcement. The focus should be on the principal pathways: wood packaging (click on “wood packaging” category for on this blog site) and imported plants (click on “plants as vectors” category for on this blog site). Specific steps to reduce the rate of introduction of wood-boring insects include enforcement to increase compliance with the international treatment standard (ISPM#15), requiring trade partners – especially those which have repeatedly shipped infested packaging – to switch to packaging made from alternative materials. Introductions via the plant trade could be reduced by requiring foreign shippers to employ integrated management and critical control point systems (per criteria set by the U.S.) and using emergency powers (e.g., NAPPRA) to further restrict imports of the plants associated with the highest pest risk, especially plant species that are congeneric with native woody plants in North America. See Lovett et al 2016; Fading Forests II & III

As backup, since even the most stringent prevention and enforcement will not eliminate all risk, the authors urge increased funding for and research into improved inspection, early detection of new outbreaks, and strategic rapid response to newly detected incursions.

To reduce impacts of pests established on the continent – both recently and years ago – they recommend increasing and stabilizing dedicated funding for classical biocontrol, research into technologies such as sterile-insect release and gene drive, and host resistance breeding.

Thinning is useful in reducing damage by native bark beetles to conifers. However, it has not been successful in controlling introduced pests for which trees do not have an evolved resistance. Indeed, preemptive harvesting of susceptible species can harm forest ecosystems directly through impacts of the harvesting operation and indirectly as individual trees that may exhibit resistance are removed, reducing the species’ ability to develop resistance over time.

Further research is needed to clarify several more issues, including whether introduced pests’ impacts are additive to, or interact with, those of native species and/or other forest stressors.

SOURCE

Quirion BR, Domke GM, Walters BF, Lovett GM, Fargione JE, Greenwood L, Serbesoff-King K, Randall JM & Fei S (2021) P&P Disturbances Correlate With Reduced Carbon Sequestration in Forests of the Contiguous US. Front. For. Glob. Change 4:716582. [Volume 4 | Article 716582] doi: 10.3389/ffgc.2021.716582

SOURCES of additional information

Campbell, F.T. and S.E. Schlarbaum. Fading Forest reports at http://treeimprovement.utk.edu/FadingForests.htm

Lovett, G.M., M. Weiss, A.M. Liebhold, T.P. Holmes, B. Leung, K.F. Lambert, D.A. Orwig, F.T. Campbell, J. Rosenthal, D.G. McCullough, R. Wildova, M.P. Ayres, C.D. Canham, D.R. Foster, S.L. Ladeau, and T. Weldy. 2016. Nonnative forest insects and pathogens in the United States: Impacts and policy options. Ecological Applications, 26(5), 2016, pp. 1437-1455

Poland, T.M., Patel-Weynand, T., Finch, D., Miniat, C. F., and Lopez, V. (Eds) (2019), Invasive Species in Forests and Grasslands of the United States: A Comprehensive Science Synthesis for the United States Forest Sector. Springer Verlag. Available for download at no cost at https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/61982

Posted by Faith Campbell

Burgeoning Imports = backlogs … & higher pest risk?

container ship at Savannah; photo by F.T. Campbell

I have blogged for a year about record-breaking volumes of imports reaching our ports from Asia … so now the media & politicians are aware of these issues! Oh, well …

The traffic jam continues … ports are being pressured to expand their hours of operation … I hope DHS Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP) is keeping up & doing its best to detect & penalize shipments in which the wood packaging violates ISPM#15. I hope CBP is not under pressure from inside the Administration to “expedite” inspections.

Remember, Asia is the origin of many of the most damaging forest pests – e.g., Asian longhorned beetle, emerald ash borer, redbay ambrosia beetle, phytophagous and Kuroshia shot hole borers (for profiles of each visit here). Indeed, 15 of 16 non-native Xyleborini detected in the United States since 2000 are from Asia (Bob Rabaglia, USFS Forest Health Protection, presentation at IUFRO meeting in Prague, September 2021).

Reports of continuing backups:

US containerized imports from Asia totaled almost 1.6 million TEU in September, meaning every month this year has seen imports average almost 20% higher than the historical monthly average of about 1.3 million TEU. Asian imports in September were 13.8% higher than in pre-COVID September 2019. Before imports from Asia surged in the second half of 2020, imports exceeded 1.59 million TEU only once, in October 2018. Now that is the average monthly volume. Shipping and logistics experts expect port-related congestion problems they have experienced all year will continue well into 2022 (Mongelluzzo, October 13, 2021).

Major ports — Los Angeles-Long Beach, Oakland, the Northwest Seaport Alliance of Seattle and Tacoma, Savannah, and New York-New Jersey — have experienced vessel bunching, congested marine terminals, intermodal rail logjams that backed up to the ports from inland rail hubs, and shortages of chassis and labor throughout the transportation supply chain. Vessels at anchor of LA-LB peaked in mid-September at 73 and have remained in the range of 58 to 70 since then (Mongelluzzo, October 13, 2021).

off-loading a container at Port of Savannah; photo by F.T. Campbell

On the other side of the country, at Savannah, imports of cargo-laden containers were 27% higher than in September 2019. Congestion meant that 22 to 27 vessels have been anchored per day awaiting a berth since the first of September. At one point, dwell times for import containers in the port rose to 12 days; this figure has since fallen to 8.4 days. The number of containers sitting at the terminal for more than 21 days has also fallen, from more than 4,000 containers in September to 2,200 now. This congestion results from the rising import volumes from Asia; some shippers are avoiding the California ports. Import volumes from Europe have been flat compared to 2019 – at 1.6 million TEU in the first seven months of 2021. One result is that carriers are now switching to Charleston (Knowler and Ashe, October 14, 2021).

I expect that the rising volume of imports from Asia presents rising opportunities for forest pests (and other invaders) to reach our shores. I hope Department of Agriculture researchers are tracking whether inspectors are now detecting higher numbers of pests in incoming wood packaging and plants. I hope they are also preparing to track detections of pest outbreaks over the next decade to see whether more Asian insects and pathogens become established as a result of the presumably higher propagule pressure.

SOURCES

Knowler, G. and A. Ashe. October 14, 2021. Trans-Atlantic carriers diverting from congested Savannah to Charleston.

https://www.joc.com/port-news/us-ports/port-savannah/trans-atlantic-carriers-diverting-congested-savannah-charleston_20211014.html?utm_source=Eloqua&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Daily%2010%2F15%2F21_PC00000_e-production_E-116222_KB_1015_0617

Mongelluzzo, B. September impors shod no relief for stressed US ports. October 13, 2021

https://www.joc.com/port-news/us-ports/september-imports-show-no-relief-stressed-us-ports_20211013.html?utm_source=Eloqua&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Daily%2010%2F14%2F21_PC00000_e-production_E-116084_KB_1014_0617

Posted by Faith Campbell

Updates on 4 major invaders + APHIS annual report

As of September 2021, a number of new publications or presentations focus on four major forest pests: the Asian longhorned beetle, emerald ash borer, sudden oak death, and the Asian ~~gypsy~~ moth. Here’s a summary.

Asian longhorned beetle (ALB)

In many ways, the ALB is the poster child for wood-borers introduced in wood packaging (SWPM). ALB has been transported multiple times in the 30 or more years since the world opened to goods from China. Outbreaks have been detected in ~50 locations in North America, Europe, the Middle East (Trotter 2021, full citation at end of the blog), even in Asia – it was detected in Japan in 2002 (eradicated) and 2020 (Shoda-Kagaya 2021). Put another way, 33 countries recorded outbreaks as of July 2021 (Porth 2021). About half of the 50 outbreaks have been eradicated; the remaining are under active management, including four of the largest populations in the U.S. (Trotter 2021)

A Canadian genetic study (Porth 2021) of five U.S. outbreaks (New York/New Jersey, Massachusetts, Illinois, and Ohio) and the two outbreaks in Toronto indicated two major sources of ALB: the North China plain and Korea (source of the Massachusetts populations). The second Toronto outbreak probably began with survivors of the first that escaped eradication. I note that shortly after the New York and Chicago outbreaks were detected, scientists said the most likely source was the northern plains of China, where China had planted large stands of poplars which quickly were attacked by ALB. These trees were made into crates and pallets to support to booming exports.

In Japan, ALB attacks elms, birches, and willows, not maples. Longer study will provide additional information about hosts (Shoda-Kagaya 2021).

A Swiss study (Augustinus 2021) confirms others’ finding that imports of stone are particularly likely to be associated with ALB-infested SWPM.

As I noted in an earlier blog, the latest U.S. outbreak in South Carolina presents several challenges. There are indications that the beetle completes its life cycle much faster in the subtropical climate – possibly within eight months (compared to two years in Massachusetts and Ohio). Also, APHIS is exploring new methods to destroy infested or vulnerable trees because workers can’t use heavy chipping equipment in swamps (Trotter 2021)

swamp in South Carolina where ALB is established; blue arrows indicate red maples photo by David Coyle

Emerald ash borer (EAB)

The EAB has been transported much less frequently in SWPM but once introduced it has proved much more difficult to eradicate or even contain. As a result it has caused much greater destruction. In North America, EAB is established in 35 states and five provinces. In the U.S. alone, an estimated 8.7 billion ash trees are under threat; this represents 2.5% of all U.S. aboveground biomass (de Andrade 2021).

In Europe, EAB is currently established in one province of Ukraine and 18 provinces of Russia. These include areas in St. Petersburg and in the Lower Volga basin that are separated from the core invasion range (Moscow) by 470 and 370 km, respectively. In Moscow EAB has caused mass mortality of European ash (F. excelsior); initial damage had been to the introduced North American species, green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) (Volkovitsh, Bienkowski and Orlova-Bienkowskaja 2021).

In January 2021, USDA APHIS ended its 19-year domestic quarantine and regulation of movement of EAB-infested wood (e.g., firewood). Blogs objecting to this APHIS is now focused on applying classical biocontrol. As of September 2020, PPQ and its partners had released ~ 8 million parasitoid wasps in 350 counties in 30 states and Washington, DC (APHIS report; Duan 2021). APHIS reports successful recovery of wasp offspring in 22 states. The agency claims those recoveries demonstrate that the wasps are reproducing, becoming established in the areas where they were released, and most important, attacking and killing the beetles.

Duan (2021) says long-term study sites in Maryland, Michigan, Connecticut, Massachusetts and New York indicate that two of the four introduced biocontrol agents, the larval parasitoids Testrastichus planipennisi and Spathius galinae, have established co-existing populations via niche partitioning on different ash tree size classes. T. planipennis dominates on saplings and small ash trees while S. galinae predominates in pole- and sawtimber-sized trees. Duan says both parasitoids appear to have played a significant role in suppressing EAB populations, although he admits that it is too early to tell if we will see significant improvement in ash recovery and regeneration.

De Andrade (2021) has begun what he hopes will be a range-wide analysis of the impact of the biocontrol effort. He notes that Spathius galinae – although first releases began as recently as 2015 – is showing the best results, possibly because it does attack EAB larvae in larger trees. It will be some years before the efficacy of the program can be determined.

Sudden oak death (SOD)

In its FY2020 annual report (citation at end of blog), APHIS notes that the disease sudden oak death was confirmed as present in a 16^th California county (Del Norte) that year. This detection thus connects quarantined areas from south of San Francisco to the one county in southwest Oregon (Curry County) where the disease is wreaking havoc.

The report notes that the causal pathogen, Phytophthora ramorum, can be moved through nursery stock. APHIS took its most important recent action regarding nursery transmission in FY2019, when it relaxed regulatory requirements. In May 2019 – during FY 2020 — a large “spill” of the pathogen on nursery stock from West Coast nurseries resulted in possibly infected plants being shipped to 18 states. The FY2020 report says nothing about this event. Instead, APHIS reports that in FY 2020, 25 nurseries participated in the interstate regulatory program and the agency released two from strict post-infection regulation. PPQ also supports annual surveys, with 23 states participating.

rhododendron seized in 2019 because it was infected by SOD; photo by Indiana Department of Natural Resources

In 2021 there was an even larger incident of infected plants being shipped to nurseries. We’ll see if APHIS includes this failure in next year’s Annual Report.

Asian ~~gypsy~~ moth (AGM)

The several species of Lymatria native to Asia are considered to pose a serious threat to North American forests. Tussock moths in East Asia have a much wider host range than the European Lymantria dispar dispar established in eastern North America. In many cases, the females fly – a behavior which would undermine the control measures applied in the East. Finally, beginning in the early 1990s, new trade patterns created opportunities for these moths to reach North America.

Several leaders of the U.S. and Canadian efforts to prevent their establishment have just published a fascinating history of how the prevention program targetting East Asian tussock moths was adopted (Mastro et al. 2021). The history notes that the first detections of AGM in the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia in the early 1990s posed several challenges to the phytosanitary agencies. These challenges were:

how to justify under international trade rules regulating insects belonging to what was then thought to be the broad species Lymatria dispar. That species had been established (ever more widely) in eastern North America since 1869. While this crisis arose before adoption of the World Trade Organization, its Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards, and the new language of the International Plant Protection Organization, the U.S. negotiating position was that it should be “against the rules” to regulate new introductions of established pests. For a thorough discussion of these issues, go to Fading Forests II.
how to manage introductions via ships rather than the plant-origin commodities that they usually regulate.

The threat prodded the agencies to overcome these obstacles – a welcome exercise of initiative! Within a few years, APHIS and its Canadian counterpart (Canadian Food Inspection Service) developed a multi-layered monitoring and inspection program that was applied first to Russia and later to Japan, Korea, and China. Adoption of regulations was assisted by a simultaneous determination by scientists that the tussock moths of Asia actually belong to several species, including but not limited to L. dispar asiatica and L. dispar japonica. I blogged about recent successes and failures of this program and about a recent analysis of additional related species that also should probably be regulated.

Asian gypsy moths on a ship in Nakhodka harbor; USDA photo

Mastro et al. (2021) report that AGM incursions in the U.S. have been discovered on 62 occasions between 1991 and 2019. These have resulted in expensive projects which have – so far – prevented establishment of AGM. These efforts are expensive for both APHIS and the states. APHIS has also funded intensive surveillance efforts, including under the Plant Pest and Disease Management and Disaster Prevention Program (Section 7721). In Fiscal Years 2018 through 2020, APHIS funded surveillance of “Asian defoliators” at more than $1 million each year.

APHIS ANNUAL REPORT FOR FY2020

In its most recent annual report (Helping U.S. Agriculture Thrive— Across the Country and Around the World Plant Protection and Quarantine: Fiscal Year 2020), APHIS provides some of the data on pests cited above. In addition, it reports the number of inspections conducted; pests intercepted and identified; and other agency activities.

Notably, APHIS claims credit for negotiating the agricultural components of the U.S.-China Phase One Economic and Trade Agreement (adopted in May 2020). APHIS says this agreement was the culmination of 20 years effort — and helped open the Chinese market to almost $1 billion annually in sales of U.S. agricultural commodities. When the agreement was announced, I blogged about my frustration that APHIS did not use take this opportunity to press the Chinese to ensure that their wood packaging is pest-free. Chinese wood packaging violates U.S. import rules more often than any other country and U.S. forests need not pay the price. [or something like that.]

As I noted above, the APHIS report makes no mention of the huge “spill” of the sudden oak death pathogen through the nursery trade in 2019 (FY2020). How can APHIS justify this omission?

SOURCES

Augustinus, B. Optimizing surveillance for priority and other quarantine forest pests in Switzerland. IUFRO Prague September 20 – 24, 2021

De Andrade, R. Emerald Ash Borer biocontrol in US IUFRO Prague September 20 – 24, 2021/

Duan, J. USDA Agriculture Research Service, Newark, DE in USDA document substituting for the 2022 USDA Forest Pest conference (“Annapolis”)”

Mastro, V.C., A.S. Munson, B. Wang, T. Freyman, & L.M. Humble. 2021. History of the Asian Lymantria species Program: A Unique Pathway Risk Mitigation Strategy. Journal of Integrated Pest Management, (2021) 12(1): 31; 1–10

Porth, Ilga. Universite Laval. Next-generation-sequencing-based biosurveillance for Anoplophora glabripennis IUFRO Prague September 20 – 24, 2021

Shoda-Kagaya, E. Current status of three invasive cerambycid pests in Japan. IUFRO Prague September 20 – 24, 2021

Trotter, R.T. USDA Forest Service, Hamden, CT in USDA document substituting for the 2022 USDA Forest Pest conference (“Annapolis”)

USDA APHIS PPQ Annual Report FY2020 Helping U.S. Ag Thrive— Across the Country and Around the World. Plant Protection and Quarantine: Fiscal Year 2020

Volkovitsh, M.G.; Bienkowski, A.O.; Orlova-Bienkowskaja, M.J. 2021. Emerald Ash Borer Approaches the Borders of the European Union and Kazakhstan and Is Confirmed to Infest European Ash. Forests

2021, 12, 691. https:// doi.org/10.3390/f12060691

Posted by Faith Campbell

Pest introductions via incoming ships: Higher volumes, expanding ports, more risks, shippers’ response

Volumes of imports continue to rise and enter the U.S. at a wider range of ports. Also, imports continue to arrive with insects in their wood packaging. The international policy intended to fix this problem is not working. It is vital to resolve this issue.

Insects in Wood Packaging

Over the ten-month period October 2020 through June 2021, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) interceptions were typical, according to Kevin Harriger, of the Department of Homeland Security, CBP. In a good sign, the number of infested shipments is 4.5% lower than the same period of the previous year. CBP inspectors found 1,563 shipments with non-compliant wood packaging. Three quarters, or1,148 shipments, lacked the required ISPM#15 stamp. A pest was found in 415 shipments (26%). Nearly three-quarters of the shipments (72% or 1,119 shipments) were carrying miscellaneous cargo. The leading pest family was Cerambycids. There were fewer Buprestids than in previous years, but more Siricids. (Reference at the end of the blog.)

Government View vs. Industry View

CBP assessed liquidated damages (a penalty related to the value of the cargo associated with the wood packaging; legal process explained here) on 654 cases (42% of the violations). These penalties totaled about $541,000 (Harriger). In response to industry objections, Harriger suggests that importers “know before you go” and work with the National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO; phytosanitary agency) of exporting countries so as to avoid interception-related delays.

At a separate webinar sponsored by IHS Markit (Journal of Commerce), an APHIS representative (Tyrone Jones, Trade Director-Forestry Products) said that in his view, ISPM#15 is working because less than 1% of wood packaging was non-compliant. Jones conceded that given the huge quantities of wood packaging in use, even a small infestation rate can result in a non-trivial amount of non-compliant wood. Jones also noted that APHIS has co-hosted workshops with Asian and Central/South American phytosanitary officials to improve their implementation of ISPM#15. The official process calls for the U.S. National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO; APHIS) to inform the foreign NPPO of problems and ask that agency to investigate and bring about a solution. Jones said the U.S. has received feedback from the exporting countries. In one case – apparently in China – APHIS got more directly involved –although how it did so is unclear. You may listen to the webinar by going here. Listening is without cost, but you must register at the site.

However, as the previous guest blog by Gary Lovett and Diana Davila makes clear, importers are frustrated. They insist that even when they exercise great care in obtaining dunnage, the system is not working. I have blogged previously about the need for government to help importers obtain information that would facilitate compliance (go to “wood packaging” category on this blog site). Jones said APHIS could not provide lists of dunnage suppliers with records of non-compliance.

America needs to ensure that pests are not introduced while trade continues. Furthermore, it is a matter of fairness. U.S. importers are trying but are stymied by the process. For these reasons, the Center for Invasive Species Prevention applauds the initiative of Houston importers to engage players in the supply chain in new approaches. We wish them success!

Issue is International

Concern about the impact of these pest detections – and resulting disruption of cargo shipments – is international. According to an article in the Maritime Executive, five international freight transport organizations under auspices of the World Shipping Counsel in the Cargo Integrity Group are pushing the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) to work with them to focus mandatory measures on known high-risk areas and cargoes.

Import Volumes Rising

Meanwhile, volumes of imports continue to rise substantially to meet booming consumer demand – with concomitant risk. Also, imports enter at a wider range of ports. The following data refer to containerized cargo, which is associated with crates and pallets. While the form of wood packaging differs from the dunnage used for the break-bulk cargo which has been the problem in Houston, the issues are the same.

The Southern California port complex (Los Angeles/Long Beach) expects a 10% growth in container volumes this year – to more than 19 million TEU [a standardized measurement equivalent to a 20-foot long container] (Angell 5 August 2021). A few weeks later, this figure was raised to 20 million TEU (Mongelluzo, September 3, 2021). The Seattle-Takoma port complex has received 12.9% more containers from Asia this year than during the same period in 2019. Oakland has received 17.8% more (Mongelluzo August 24, 2021).

In the East, the port of Savannah moved 5.3 million TEU in the fiscal year ended June 30, an 18% increase over the same period in 2018–19 (before the COVID-19 pandemic upset import volumes). In expectation of further growth in volume, the Port of Savannah is creating additional container storage capacity; it aims to reach 7.5 million TEU by mid-2023 (Ashe 26 July 2021). The Port Authority of Virginia has voted to dredge its main channel which would make the port the deepest on the East Coast (surpassing Charleston) and allow greater access to larger ships coming from Southeast Asia. Virginia’s four container terminals currently handle 4.8 million TEU, collectively. We – federal taxpayers – are paying for these port expansions and associated risks of introduction of wood-boring pests, Asian tussock moths, and aquatic invaders.

Congress Paying to Expand Ports

The bipartisan infrastructure bill now pending in Congress contains $11.8 billion in new federal funding over the next five years to expand and improve ports and inland waterways (Szakonyi August 3, 2021). For example, funding for a portion of the dredging planned by the Port Authority of Virginia is included in this bill.

If adopted, the bill [§40804(b)(6)] also would provide $200 million for invasive species detection, prevention, and eradication, including conducting research and providing resources to facilitate detection of invasive species at points of entry. The funding is divided equally between the departments of Interior and Agriculture. Agencies will need these funds to address the plant pests (to say nothing of aquatic invaders) that arrive at these expanded ports!

Lymantria monacha 1 Novlinder, Saxafraga -Ab H Bass

Asian ~~Gypsy~~ Tussock Moths – Improved Detection Rates Result from Better Targetting

Another threat to America’s forests is the arrival of tussock moths from Asia. Kevin Harriger told the National Plant Board that CBP has improved its targetting of ships coming from Asia, based on flight dates, proximity of specific loading docks to forested areas, and other factors. Since 2018, CBP has detected moth egg masses on 177 ships. This equals an approach rate of 12.5% – much higher than the historical moth approach rate of 1%. Ships detected to be transporting moths must leave U.S. or Canadian waters and be cleaned. CBP is now searching vessels more intensely during re-inspection– and finding additional egg masses that had been missed. Thanks to the better targetting data, APHIS, CBP and state officials are aware of the approach of suspect vessels before they arrive.

SOURCES

Angell, M. Port of Virginia to proceed with second dredging project. July 27, 2021. https://www.joc.com/port-news/us-ports/port-virginia/port-virginia-proceed-second-dredging-project_20210727.html?utm_source=Eloqua&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Daily%207%2F28%2F21%20_PC00000_e-production_E-107609_TF_0728_0617

Angell, M. Long Beach will need 24-hour shifts for future cargo flow: Cordero. August 5, 2021 https://www.joc.com/port-news/us-ports/port-long-beach/long-beach-will-need-24-hour-shifts-future-cargo-flow-cordero_20210805.html?utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Port%208%2F11%2F21%20_PC00000_e-production_E-108850_TF_0811_0900&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Eloqua

Ashe, A. Savannah aims to restore fluidity amid record cargoes. July 26, 2021. https://www.joc.com/port-news/us-ports/georgia-ports-authority/savannah-aims-restore-fluidity-amid-record-cargoes_20210726.html?utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Port%207%2F28%2F21%20%20_PC00000_e-production_E-107524_TF_0728_0900&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Eloqua

Harriger, K. DHS CBP. Presentation at annual meeting of the National Plant Board, 26 July, 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=btb6FwQkeeo&list=PLeT07astA4fs0OOHQDWHJw2thXQX-4UBb

Haack, R.A., Britton, K.O., Brockerhoff, E.G., Cavey, J.F., Garrett, L.J., et al. 2014. Effectiveness of the International Phytosanitary Standard ISPM No. 15 on Reducing Wood Borer Infestation Rates in Wood Packaging Material Entering the United States. PLoS ONE 9(5): e96611. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096611

Jones, J.T, USDA APHIS during JOC webinar, 19 August, 2021

Mongelluzzo, B. Carriers returning to Oakland, Seattle-Tacoma as LA-LB congestion mounts. 24 August, 2021. https://www.joc.com/port-news/us-ports/carriers-returning-oakland-seattle-tacoma-la-lb-congestion-mounts_20210824.html?utm_source=Eloqua&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Daily%208/25/21_PC00000_e-production_E-110369_KB_0825_0617

Mongelluzzo, B. September 3, 2021. LA-LB preparing for record 20 million TEU this year. https://www.joc.com/port-news/us-ports/la-lb-preparing-record-20-million-teu-year_20210903.html?utm_source=Eloqua&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Daily%209%2F7%2F21%20_PC00000_e-production_E-111179_TF_0907_0617

Szakonyi, M. August 3, 2021. JOC. Advancing infrastructure bill promises US port funding splurge. https://www.joc.com/port-news/advancing-infrastructure-bill-promises-us-port-funding-splurge_20210803.html?utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Port%208%2F4%2F21_PC00000_e-production_E-108286_TF_0804_1045&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Eloqua

Posted by Faith Campbell

A novel approach for keeping pests out of wood packaging material

A guest blog written by Gary Lovett, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies; and Diana Davila, UTC Overseas, Inc.

Gary Lovett died suddenly in December 2022. The future of this initiative is unclear.

Importers are learning that relying on the ISPM#15 mark to ensure that solid wood packaging material is pest-free can be a costly mistake. We propose a private sector solution for keeping insect pests out of wood packaging material and dunnage used in international trade. This voluntary program will supplement ISPM#15 procedures, and implementing it will require cooperation from U.S. government agencies.

dunnage left on the deck of Pan Jasmine after earlier off-loading of cargo;
intercepted by CBP at Port of New Orleans; CBP photo

Readers of this series of blogs are well aware that international trade using solid wood packaging material (WPM) such as pallets, crates and dunnage can transport wood-boring insects into the U.S., and that these pests are one of the biggest threats to forest health in this country. The international regulation known as ISPM#15 (International Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures #15), adopted by the U.S. in 2006, was supposed to solve this problem by mandating treatment of WPM to kill embedded insects through heat, fumigation, or other approved treatments. Treated wood is marked with an official stamp. Research has shown that this has only been partially effective, and the U.S. regularly receives WPM that is marked as having been treated, but is nonetheless infested with insects. This can occur either because the treatments are not 100% effective, or because they were improperly applied- or not applied at all, and the wood is fraudulently marked- by our trading partners.

This is a big problem not only for our forests, but for shippers and importers as well. Importers purchase wood and dunnage marked with the ISPM#15 stamp expecting it to be pest-free, but Customs and Border Protection (CBP) inspectors at ports often find insects in the wood. In an average year, CBP finds insect infestations in WPM in about 700 incoming shipments. Depending on the type of insect, this can result in a large fine for the importer or shipper (up to the value of the cargo) and they could also be required to re-export the infested cargo immediately. The re-exportation can be especially costly if an entire ship needs to be turned around and sent elsewhere because of infested WPM on board. In a recent example (see photo above), the Pan Jasmine, a 590-foot, Panamanian-flagged vessel, was found by CBP on July 17, 2021 to have infested dunnage on board and was turned around before it could dock at the Port of New Orleans (see photo above). These episodes often cost importers hundreds of thousands of dollars each time they happen, and in some cases the total cost for a single incident can be in the millions of dollars.

Cerambycid larva found in dunnage from Pan Jasmine; photo by A. Cunningham, USDA APHIS

Importers are learning that relying on the ISPM#15 mark to ensure that WPM is pest-free can be a costly mistake. To try to address this problem, a coalition of shippers that use the Port of Houston established a committee to investigate the issue and try to come up with solutions. The committee, called the Houston WPM and Dunnage Coalition, includes a core group that includes the two of us plus Peter Svensson of Clipper Americas and Richard Brazzale of Lake Shore Associates. The full group includes representatives of several other shipping companies, and we also work with staff from the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and CBP.

We suggest a new approach by which importers can help prevent insect infestations of their WPM. Importers routinely use international inspection companies to check merchandise before it is shipped. Working at the loading port, these companies make sure that the cargo is what was ordered and that it is in good condition. There are several large international inspection companies that provide this service to importers for a fee. If the inspectors could be trained to also check for signs of insect infestation in the WPM, the problem could be addressed prior to shipment, reducing the risk of fines and re-exportation when the cargo reaches the U.S. We have spoken with several inspection companies that are eager to provide this service, and we believe that many shippers and importers will conclude that these pre-loading inspections can save them money by avoiding the high risk of fines and re-exportation.

To move forward with this program, inspection companies need to have their personnel trained to spot pest infestations in WPM. CBP has the most experience in this, and we hope they will agree to offer training sessions, or at least provide training material. We also believe that importers and shippers would benefit from creating an organization to oversee the program, certify inspectors and collect information on reliable producers of pest-free WPM. We hope a pilot program can be started within the next year, and that a full program can be ramped up after that. While we are proposing this for cargo bound for the U.S., the system is in concept applicable to cargo moving anywhere in the world. And while we focus on insects in WPM, the same approach could be used to inspect for other invasive species; for instance, seeds on the floor of a shipping container or insect egg masses on containers or cargo.

evidence of insect damage to dunnage on Pan Jasmine; CBP photo

This program offers a private-sector solution to the problem of infested WPM, and represents the first step being sought within the industry to mitigate the risk of pests arriving to the U.S., and the loss of confidence in the ISPM#15 certification being provided by WPM manufacturers. Other possible measures will be discussed in a subsequent blog post. The program would supplement, not replace, ISPM#15 regulations, and importers would still be required to use ISPM#15 compliant WPM. However, this program would reduce companies’ reliance on the ISPM#15 system, which has proven undependable. Developing this system for international shipments of WPM would provide a win-win—good for shippers and importers, and good for forests around the world.

[For Faith Campbell’s blogs on this topic, click on the category “wood packaging,” which is found below the monthly list of blogs on this site.]

Tuning in to the News – Mostly Depressing

In late July I participated in the annual meeting of the National Plant Board (NPB) – the organization representing the states’ phytosanitary agencies. USDA’s APHIS, DHS’ Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP), and various industry associations also participated in the meeting. As usual, I learned lots of depressing developments.

A. Old problems continue to vex:

rhododendron plant infested by P. ramorum; photo by Jennifer Parke, Oregon State University

1) Sudden Oak Death in the Nursery Trade – Again!!!

As you might remember, spring 2019 saw an alarming number of plants infested by the sudden oak death pathogen (Phytophthora ramorum) shipped from west coast nurseries to nurseries in 18 states. Another major incident occurred in 2021. The California Oak Mortality Task Force (COMTF) newsletter for June 2021 reports that one nursery in Oregon shipped plants exposed to P. ramorum to big-box stores in 36 states — twice the number of states that received pathogen-exposed plants in 2019.

The first such incident was in 2004 – 17 years ago! Officials of the states that receive these infested plants are angry that every few years they must divert their resources from other duties to inspect nurseries in their states that have been exposed to the pathogen. They note that these “trace-forward” projects cost state governments money and prevent their carrying out other duties; they also impose significant costs on the in-state nurseries due to holds on sales. When infested plants are found, all these costs rise substantially.

The plant health official from Alabama noted that a single west coast nursery that had repeatedly been found to have infected plants shipped 29 lots of host plants to her state in spring 2021. As is clear from the COMTF article, other states also received thousands of plants that had been exposed to the pathogen. The Alabama official questioned why APHIS tilts so far toward a regulatory system that makes it possible for the “exporting” nurseries to ship. The result – too often – is that an infection at one small business can (repeatedly) impose high costs on hundreds of receiving nurseries and states. [I wonder whether anyone has considered a lawsuit against the source nurseries claiming damages? Would that be successful if the regulatory agencies approved the shipments because – at that time – their inspections had failed to detect the problem?]

Officials from the three west coast states, however, want to support their own nurseries’ efforts to relax regulations and maintain or open markets in the central and eastern states. They point to their own considerable efforts to inspect and certify the pest-free status of nurseries in their states.

Because of the different points of view among the states, the National Plant Board per se has never taken a position on the issue.

However, many states – and even APHIS Deputy Administrator El-Lissy – agree that something is not working. So APHIS is in the midst of reviewing its program, with input from NPB members. Such program reviews have been undertaken several times over the past 18 years. So far, they have never produced a program that effectively stops sales of pathogen-infested plants.

2) Contaminated Wood Packaging

Kevin Harriger of CBP reported that over the nine-month period October 2020 – June 2021, CBP intercepted 1,563 shipments that were in violation of ISPM#15, the international rule that requires that wood packaging be treated to kill pests. Most, or 1,148 shipments (73%), lacked the required mark certifying treatment. Four hundred fifteen (26%) of the total number of shipments had a live pest present. Nearly three quarters of the non-compliant shipments transported miscellaneous cargo. This is not a surprise: all of these characteristics are in keeping with past experience.

Meanwhile, APHIS Deputy Director El-Lissy said APHIS was working with importers, exporting countries’ departments of agriculture, and others to improve compliance. Apparently there were two high-profile incidents when shipments of car components were rejected because of ISPM#15 issues. I am trying to learn more about these incidents.

I recently blogged about the pest risk associated with incoming shipping containers and dunnage.

3) Asian ~~Gypsy~~ Moths (Tussock moths) Still Infesting Ships

Harriger also said that the period 2019-2020 saw the largest number of ships infested by Asian tussock moth eggs since the program began in 2012. [I am aware that the Entomological Society is searching for a new name for this group of insects.] On average, 12 of 100 approaching vessels was infested. CBP is using sophisticated models to identify regions within Asian ports where conditions exacerbate the risk of moth contamination. CBP can match individual ships’ loading records to this information to pinpoint which are most likely to be infested.

Oregon and Washington continue to find both Asian and European tussock moths in traps along the Columbia River. Such detections prompt eradication programs of varying expense and disruption.

[In April, I blogged about a report evaluating the risk posed by several Asian tussock moths; the report was prepared by experts under the auspices of the North American Plant Protection Organization.]

B. In addition to the arrival of new pests, there is an alarming spread of established ones:

1) Beech leaf disease

State phytosanitary officials reported detections of beech leaf disease (BLD) in Maine and Virginia. The devastating impact of BLD on this hard mast tree species is described here. BLD has now spread through much of southern New England (Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts) and up the coast to Maine. Connecticut reports that trees of all sizes are affected. Maine reports that the disease is widespread in the central coastal region.

beech trees in Prince William Forest Park

Virginia reported that the disease has been detected in Prince William Forest Park, a forested area south of Washington, D.C., managed by the National Park Service. This detection is too recent to say how widespread it is.

2) Laurel wilt

Kentucky’s plant health officer reported that laurel wilt disease has been detected on sassafras trees in Louisville, at the northern tip of the state and across the river from Ohio. He noted that a second host plant, spice bush, is in the nursery trade. While laurel wilt is not regulated, officials are concerned about its impact in natural forests. Neighboring states are concerned.

sassafras in northern Virginia; photo by F.T. Campbell

I learned by looking at the map that laurel wilt has also been detected in Sullivan County, Tennessee, on the Virginia border.

3) Spotted Lanternfly

This pest of grapes, tree fruits, and a wide variety of native trees is spreading in Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, and Maryland. It has also been found in Ithaca, NY, and in Connecticut. The populations in Virginia and West Virginia also continue to spread; a disjunct outbreak has been detected in Prince William County, VA. (south of D.C.). Most alarming are disjunct populations in Ohio on the West Virginia border and in Indiana on the Ohio River border with northern Kentucky. See map here.

The Indiana population has been present for several years. The affected woodland is close to RV parks and other facilities that make further spread likely.

California has established an external quarantine targetting the spotted lanternfly .

C. Wrestling with Continuing Issues:

1) States try to compensate for APHIS’ end of regulating the emerald ash borer and firewood

The members of the NPB have spent years discussing the pros and cons of continuing to regulate ash wood to contain the emerald ash borer (EAB). As I blogged earlier, APHIS has ended its regulatory program. One state – Minnesota – is seeking to use an APHIS procedure to get APHIS’ continued protection from importation of EAB-infested wood (presumably from Canada). Under the Federally Recognized State Managed Phytosanitary Program (FRSMP), a state petitions APHIS to recognize its program for a specific pest. If APHIS grants that recognition, the agency will support the state by continuing to regulate imports of that pest or commodities that might transport the pest when they are destined for the regulating state.

The states have also tried to formulate a system to maintain regulation of firewood (nearly all states’ firewood regulations were based on the federal regulation of all hardwoods to prevent transport of the EAB). As part of this process, the NPB developed guidelines for adoption of regulations by the individual states (available here). The NPB members are just beginning to explore whether states might set up third-party certification system(s). Among the challenges to any harmonization are states’ differing legal authorities and disagreement on what threat levels should be applied, and for how long.

2) New information about the Asian longhorned beetle in South Carolina

ALB in South Carolina; photo by R. Brad Thompson, APHIS

South Carolina authorities reported that dendrological studies indicated Asian longhorned beetle (ALB) had been present near Charleston, S.C. since 2012, and possibly earlier. The population has the same genetic makeup as the outbreak in Ohio. This might be explained by either transport of infested wood from Clermont County, Ohio, or that wood packaging entering Charleston harbor came from the same part of China. (Charleston is an important port.) In South Carolina, ALB attacks primarily red maple – as is true at the other infestation sites. However, maple densities are much lower in the swamps of South Carolina and scientists don’t know whether the ALB will fly farther or intensify attacks on other host species. Other questions raised by differences between South Carolina and other, more northern, outbreak sites include possible changes in the beetle’s life cycle and flight periods.

Authorities noted the extremely difficult conditions, which impede survey and control efforts – which I described in an earlier blog.

One innovation was sharing of resources: staff from the North Carolina and Tennessee departments of agriculture went to South Carolina to help with surveys. The Resource Sharing Initiative was started a few years ago as a collaborative effort of APHIS and the NPB. This was the first time states tried it. There were several issues that had to be worked out. One issue was the long time it takes to train people to recognize ALB symptoms. All three states’ officials said the project was worthwhile.

black walnut in Fairfax County, VA — in an area where thousand cankers disease has been present for more than a decade; photo by FT Campbell

3) Recinding quarantines of thousand cankers disease of walnut

States which adopted quarantines targetting this insect/pathogen complex a decade ago now think that it poses little risk to black walnut (Juglans nigra) growing in its native range (as distinct from trees planted in the West). Several are in the process of rescinding their quarantines. I think these states have considered the science carefully and are taking the appropriate action.

4) Nursery self-certification – System Set Up; Will Nurseries Participate? Will Customers Support the Process?

Craig Regelbrugge of AmericanHort noted that the SANC program has now been officially launched – it has graduated from being a pilot program. [SANC stands for Systems Approach to Nursery Certification] Participants are exploring incentives to recruit wider participation by nurseries that produce plants and how to get support from plant retailers. SANC is conceived as an elite program for the best nurseries and marketplace leaders. It was never intended to be a remedial program to clean up problem issues such as the P. ramorum debacle. To work, it seems to me, SANC will need to find a way to persuade customers to want to pay more for quality plants. Hence the critical importance of getting retailers involved.

Posted by Faith Campbell

On the Rise: US Imports & the Risks of Tree-killing Pests

containers at Port of Long Beach; photo courtesy of Bob Kanter, Port of Long Beach

Here I update information on two of the major pathways by which tree-killing pests enter the United States: wood packaging and living plants (plant for planting).

Wood Packaging

Looking at wood packaging material, we find rising volumes for both shipping containers – and their accompanying crates and pallets; and dunnage.

Crates and pallets – Angell (2021; full citation at the end of the blog) provides data on North American maritime imports in 2020. The total number of TEUs [a standardized measure for containerized shipment; defined as the equivalent of a 20-foot long container] entering North America was 30,778,446.U.S. ports received 79.6% of these incoming containers, or 24,510,990 TEUs. Four Canadian ports handled 11.4% of the total volume (3,517,464 TEUs; four Mexican ports 8.9% (2,749, 992 TEU). Angell provides data for each of the top 25 ports, including those in Canada and Mexico.

To evaluate the pest risk associated with the containerized cargo, I rely on a pair of two decade-old studies. Haack et al. (2014) determined that approximately 0.1% (one out of a thousand) shipments with wood packaging probably harbor a tree-killing pest. Meissner et al. (2009) found that about 75% of maritime shipments contain wood packaging. Applying these calculations, we estimate that 21,000 of the containers arriving at U.S. and Canadian ports in 2020 might have harbored tree-killing pests.

While the opportunity for pests to arrive is obviously greatest at the ports receiving the highest volumes of containers with wood packaging, the ranking (below) does not tell the full story. The type of import is significant. For example, while Houston ranks sixth for containerized imports, it ranks first for imports of break-bulk (non-containerized) cargo that is often braced by wooden dunnage (see below). Consequently, Houston poses a higher risk than its ranking by containerized shipment might indicate.

Also, Halifax Nova Scotia ranks 22^nd for the number of incoming containerized shipments (258,185 containers arriving). However, three tree-killing pests are known to have been introduced there: beech bark disease (in the 1890s), brown spruce longhorned beetle (in the 1990s), and European leaf-mining weevil (before 2012) [Sweeney, Annapolis 2018]

The top ten ports receiving containerized cargo in 2020 were

Port 2020 market share 2020 TEU volume

Los Angeles 15.6% 4,652,549

Long Beach 13% 3,986,991

New York/New Jersey 12.8% 3,925,469

Savannah 7.5% 2,294,392

Vancouver BC 5.8% 1,797,582

Houston 4.2% 1,288,128

Manzanillo, MX 4.1% 1,275,409

Seattle/Tacoma 4.1% 1,266,839

Virginia ports 4.1% 1,246,609

Charleston 3.3% 1,024,059

Import volumes continue to increase since these imports were recorded. U.S. imports rose substantially in the first half of 2021, especially from Asia. Imports from that content reached 9,523,959 TEUs, up 24.5% from the 7,649,095 TEUs imported in the first half of 2019. The number of containers imported in June was the highest number ever (Mongelluzzo July 12, 2021).

Applying the calculations from Haack et al. (2014) and Meissner et al. (2009) to the 2021 import data, we find that approximately 7,100 containers from Asia probably harbored tree-killing pests in the first six months of the year. (The article unfortunately reports data only for Asia.) Industry representatives quoted by Mongelluzzo expect high import volumes to continue through the summer. This figure also does not consider shipments from other source regions.

Dunnage on the pier at Port of Houston; photo by Port of Houston

Infested dunnage – Looking at dunnage, imports of break-bulk (non-containerized) cargo to Houston – the U.S. port which receives the most – are also on the upswing. Imports in April were up 21% above the pandemic-repressed 2020 levels.

Importers at the port complain that too often the wooden dunnage is infested by pests, despite having been stamped as in compliance with ISPM#15. CBP spokesman John Sagle confirms that CBP inspectors at Houston and other ports are finding higher numbers of infested shipments. CBP does not release those data, so we cannot provide exact numbers (Nodar, July 19, 2021).

The Houston importers’ suspicion has been confirmed by data previously provided by CBP to the Continental Dialogue on Non-Native Insects and Diseases. From Fiscal Year 2010 through Fiscal Year 2015, on average 97% of the wood packaging (all types) found to be infested bore the stamp. CBP no longer provides data that touch on this issue.

Detection of pests in the dunnage leads to severe problems. Importers can face fines up to the full value of the associated cargo. Often, the cargo is re-exported, causing disruption of supply chains and additional financial losses (Nodar, July 19, 2021).

In 2019 importers and shippers from the Houston area formed an informal coalition with the Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies to try to find a solution to this problem. The chosen approach is for company employees to be trained in CBP’s inspection techniques, then apply those methods at the source of shipments to identify – and reject – suspect dunnage before the shipment is loaded. In addition, the coalition hopes that international inspection companies, which already inspect cargo for other reasons at the loading port will also be trained to inspect for pests. Steps to set up such a training program were interrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, but are expected to resume soon (Nodar, July 19, 2021).

Meanwhile, the persistence of pests in “treated” wood demands answers to the question of “why”. Is the cause fraud – deliberate misrepresentations that the wood has been treated when it has not? Or is the cause a failure of the treatments – either because they were applied incorrectly or they are inadequate per se?

ISPM#15 is not working adequately. I have said so. Gary Lovett of the Cary Institute has said so (Nodar July 19, 2021). Neither importers nor regulators can rely on the mark to separate pest-free wood packaging from packaging that is infested.

APHIS is the agency responsible for determining U.S. phytosanitary policies. APHIS has so far not accepted its responsibility for determining the cause of this continuing issue and acting to resolve it. Preferably, such detection efforts should be carried out in cooperation with other countries and such international entities as the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO). However, APHIS should undertake such studies alone, if necessary.

In the meantime, APHIS and CBP should assist importers who are trying to comply by facilitating access to information about which suppliers often supply wood packaging infested by pests. The marks on the wood packaging includes a code identifying the facility that carried out the treatment, so this information is readily available to U.S. authorities.

Plants for Planting

A second major pathway of pest introduction is imports of plants for planting. Data on this pathway are too poor to assess the risk – although a decade ago it was found that the percentage of incoming shipments of plants infested by a pest was 12% – more than ten times higher than the proportion for wood packaging (Liebhold et al. 2012).

According to APHIS’ annual report, in 2020 APHIS and its foreign collaborators inspected 1.05 billion plants in the 23 countries where APHIS has a pre-clearance program. In other words, these plants were inspected before they were shipped to the U.S. At U.S. borders, APHIS inspected and cleared another 1.8 billion “plant units” (cuttings, rooted plants, tissue culture, etc.) and nearly 723,000 kilograms of seeds. Obviously, the various plant types carry very different risks of pest introduction, so lumping them together obscures the pathway’s risk. The report does not indicate whether the total volume of plant imports rose or fell in 2020 compared to earlier years.

SOURCES

Angell, M. 2021. JOC Rankings: Largest North American ports gained marke share in 2020. June 18, 2021. https://www.joc.com/port-news/us-ports/joc-rankings-largest-north-american-ports-gained-market-share-2020_20210618.html?utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Port%206%2F23%2F21%20%20_PC00000_e-production_E-103506_TF_0623_0900&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Eloqua

Haack R.A., Britton K.O., Brockerhoff, E.G., Cavey, J.F., Garrett, L.J., et al. (2014) Effectiveness of the International Phytosanitary Standard ISPM No. 15 on Reducing Wood Borer Infestation Rates in Wood Packaging Material Entering the United States. PLoS ONE 9(5): e96611. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096611

Liebhold, A.M., E.G. Brockerhoff, L.J. Garrett, J.L. Parke, and K.O. Britton. 2012. Live Plant Imports: the Major Pathway for Forest Insect and Pathogen Invasions of the US. www.frontiersinecology.org

Meissner, H., A. Lemay, C. Bertone, K. Schwartzburg, L. Ferguson, L. Newton. 2009. Evaluation of Pathways for Exotic Plant Pest Movement into and within the Greater Caribbean Region. A slightly different version of this report is posted at 45^th Annual Meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops Society https://econpapers.repec.org/paper/agscfcs09/256354.htm

Mogelluzzo, B. July 12, 2021. Strong US imports from Asia in June point to a larger summer surge.

Nodar, J. July 19, 2021. https:www.joc.com/breakbulk/project-cargo/breakbult-volume-recovery-triggers-cbp-invasive-pest-violations_20210719.htm

Posted by Faith Campbell

International Phytosanitary System Impedes Prevention

*Eugenia koolauensis* (endangered) damaged by ohia rust; photo courtesy of the U.S. Army Natural Resources Program, Oahu

I have written often about failings of the international phytosanitary systems – starting with my report Fading Forests II in 2004, and continuing in many blogs. As the International Year of Plant Health comes to an end, I do so again. I begin with a key recommendation.

Australia’s experience dealing with myrtle rust (Austropuccina psidii) demonstrates the need to integrate agencies responsible for conservation of natural ecosystems into the determination and implementation of phytosanitary policy.

These environmental agencies should be active participants in setting up surveillance and diagnostics protocols and on-the-ground surveillance, and should be directly involved in emergency response. Federal agricultural agencies have technical expertise in biosecurity but lack expertise in key elements of environmental management. In the Australian context, this recommendation is made by several studies cited by Carnegie and Pegg (2018) – full citation at the end of this blog. I strongly endorse the recommendation for the United States. In the U.S., the appropriate agencies would include USDA’s Forest Service and the Department of Interior’s Fish and Wildlife Service.

While the USDA Forest Service is (apparently) more involved in US phytosanitary efforts than its Australian counterpart, its voice in setting USDA phytosanitary policy is limited to the most narrow details, e.g., treatment protocols for wood packaging.

Carnegie and Pegg note a second common problem: the ongoing decline in forest entomology and pathology capacity in government agencies. This decline has long been decried by U.S. natural resource experts as depriving agencies of needed expertise – but we have not yet managed to raise agency budgets so as to reverse it.

The forests of Australia, New Zealand, nearby islands, and South Africa formed during the period of the supercontinent Gondwana – 300 million years ago. While the threat to these unique forests from non-native pests is severe, so far it arises from a limited number of organisms. These are Phytophthora cinnamomi, Austropuccinia psidii, polyphagous shot hole borer and Fusarium fungus (in South Africa), and – in the future, laurel wilt disease. All these organisms threaten multiple hosts. In contrast, the threat to America’s forests comes from more than 100 highly damaging non-native insects, pathogens, and nematodes already here. Some threaten multiple hosts. Plus there is the constant risk of new introductions. Surely our federal conservation agencies have important resources to defend and expertise to contribute to the effort.

Flaws in the System

The international phytosanitary rules adopted by both the World Trade Organization’s Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures [WTO SPS Agreement] and the International Plant Protection Convention [IPPC] are fundamentally flawed. That is, they require regulatory officials to be unrealistically certain about an organism’s “pest” potential before regulating it. Yet uncertainty is likely to be at its highest at two critical times: before invasion or at its earliest stage. These times are precisely when phytosanitary actions are likely to be most effective.

The effect of this demand for certainty is exacerbated by decision-makers’ caution when confronted with the potential that their action might harm an economic interest. The vast majority won’t impose a regulation until they are sure that the organism under consideration poses a major threat to plant health.

Yet at the same time, most phytosanitary officials rarely carry out the scientific studies that might answer such questions about the risk.

For example, USDA APHIS has created its own Catch 22. It has not funded laboratory tests to get preliminary information on how vulnerable North American tree genera are to the 38 new Phytophthora species detected in Southeast Asia [see earlier blog]. European scientists are doing this testing; it is unclear whether their work is supported by European governments. American scientists could build on the Europeans’ work since our continents share many plant genera – but since vulnerability might vary at the species level, we still must assess North American species separately. At the same time as APHIS is not sponsoring such tests, it refuses to propose acting under its NAPPRA authority link to temporarily prohibit imports of Asian hosts of the Phytophthoras because it lacks information demonstrating the risk they pose to North American plants!

Sometimes, other agencies step in to fill the gap. Thus, the USDA Forest Service funded research to demonstrate that strains of the ‘ōhi‘a rust pathogen not yet introduced to the U.S. posed a risk to native plants in Hawai`i. (See the linked description and additional information later in this blog.) The Forest Service has also funded “sentinel gardens” – plantings inside the U.S. and abroad that are closely monitored to detect new pests.

British forest pathologist Clive Brasier (white hair) searching for *Phytophthora* species in Vietnam

Three pathogens illustrate the problems clearly:

1) brown alga in the Phytophthora genus;

2) myrtle (or ohia or eucalyptus) rust Austropuccinia psidii; and

3) the ophiostomatoid laurel wilt fungus Raffaelea lauricola.

These organisms present a variety of challenges to various countries. Individually and together, these pathogens threaten to transforms forest floras around the world.

Spread: the first two are spread internationally by movement of plants for planting but also spread locally by rain or wind. The third, laurel wilt fungus, arrived in the U.S. when its insect vector, the redbay ambrosia beetle Xyleborus glabratus, hitched a ride in solid wood packaging material.

How countries prepared for pathogen invasion – not always successfully

Numerous plant pathogens in the Phytophthora genus have long had the attention of phytosanitary officials. However, the species that causes sudden oak death (P. ramorum) was unknown when it was introduced to North America and Europe in the late 1980s or early 1990s. The established phytosanitary measures on two continents failed to detect and prevent its introduction.

areas of Australia vulnerable to myrtle rust; Australian Department of Agriculture and Water Resources

The myrtle rust pathogen was already recognized by phytosanitary officials in Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia as a severe potential threat, especially to Eucalyptus in both natural forests and plantations. Its appearance in Hawai`i in 2005 raised the level of concern. However, that awareness neither prevented its entry to Australia (probably, although not certainly, on imported plants or foliage) nor prompted its detection early enough for eradication. New Zealand and New Caledonia became infested by wind transport of the pathogen from Australia. [For a thorough discussion of the Australia’s extensive preparations for possible introduction of this pathogen, see Carnegie and Pegg 2018, full citation at the end of this blog.]

The laurel wilt fungus was unknown before it was detected in Georgia, U.S.A. Phytosanitary officials were certainly aware of the pest risk associated with wood packaging material (see Fading Forests II, chapter 3) but at the time the invasion was detected – 2003 – U.S. regulations required that the wood be debarked only, not treated to kill pests.

redbay tree killed by laurel wilt in Georgia

Pathogens are more difficult to detect and manage than insects. They also get less attention. I can think of three possible reasons: 1) Usually we can’t see a pathogen – we literally can’t put a face on the “enemy”. 2) Disease intensity can vary depending on ecological factors, so it is more difficult to understand than an insect feeding on a plant. 3) In recent decades, many invading insects have been linked to a singlepathway of introduction — wood packaging — while pathogens enter through association with a myriad of imports, especially a variety of imported plants. A single pathway is a concept that is easier to understand and address. Because pathogens get little attention, it is more difficult to obtain data quantifying their risks.

The rapid spread and high mortality of laurel wilt in one host – redbay trees (Persea borbonia) – and threat to a second—sassafras (Sassafras albidum) – have alerted scientists to this threat. The pathogen apparently threatens trees and shrubs in the Lauraceae family that are native to regions other than Southeast Asia. These areas include the tropical Americas, Australia, Madagascar, and islands in the eastern Atlantic (Azores, Canary Islands, and Madeira). I understand that Australian phytosanitary officials are aware of this risk, but I don’t know about officials in the other regions. For example, laurel wilt is not listed among the pathogens thought to pose the greatest risk in Europe, i.e., the A1 list of the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO)

Why do some organisms suddenly disperse widely? Who is figuring out why?

The myrtle rust pathogen Austropuccinia psidii experienced a burst of introductions after 2000: it was detected in Hawai`i in 2005, Japan in 2009, Australia in 2010, China in 2011, New Caledonia and South Africa in 2013, Indonesia and Singapore in 2016, and New Zealand in 2017. It is believed to have been carried to Hawai`i on cut vegetation for the floral trade; to New Caledonia and New Zealand by wind from Australia across the Tasman Sea. The introduction pathway to Australia has never been determined, although it first was detected in a nursery. I don’t have information on how it was introduced to Japan or China. Has anyone tried to figure out what triggered this expansion? Was it some fad in horticulture or floriculture? Would it not be useful to learn what happened so we can try to prevent a repetition?

Similar sudden dispersals occurred during roughly the same period for Phytophthora ramorum and the erythrina gall wasp (Quadrastichus erythrinae). The latter spread across the Indian and Pacific oceans within a dozen years of its discovery. Again, was there some fad that prompted international trade in host material? Or did the insect suddenly start utilizing transport facilities such as aircraft interiors or holds? Has anyone tried to figure this out? I doubt anyone is even searching for and recording the presence of the gall wasp now that it is so widespread.

Is the fungal genus Ceratocystis experiencing a similar dispersal burst now? Australian authorities (Carnegie and Pegg 2018) have noted Ceratocystis wilts threatening Acacia and Eucalyptus, as well as Metrosideros.

Efforts often wane at the management and restoration stages.

In the cases of all three pathogens, governments have reduced their efforts once they determined that they could not eradicate the pest.

In North America, USDA APHIS regulates movement of nursery stock with the goal of preventing spread of P. ramorum to the East. The agency has reduced the stringency of its regulations several times over the 18 years it has been regulated. These changes have been made at the urging of the nursery industry in California and Oregon, which are where the pathogen is present. Two years ago, a major regulatory failure resulted in infected plants being shipped to more than 100 retailers in more than a dozen states. This had huge costs to dozens, if not hundreds, of nurseries and state regulatory agencies. Yet APHIS has neither published a straightforward and complete analysis of what went wrong, nor promised to correct any weaknesses revealed by such an analysis. Another apparent regulatory failure is the appearance of the EU1 strain of P. ramorum in the country; this seems to indicate that introductions to North America have occurred more recently than the initial introduction in the late 1980s or early 1990s.

In Hawai`i, concern about the potential impact of myrtle rust on the Islands’ dominant native tree species, ‘ōhi‘a (Metrosideros polymorpha), spurred action. Although myrtle rust spread to all the islands within months, the state imposed an emergency rule prohibiting importation to the state of Myrtaceae plants or cut foliage in 2008. This action was relatively rapid, although it was three years after detection of the pathogen. The rule aimed to prevent introduction of possibly more virulent strains. However, it expired in 2009 (emergency rules are effective for only one year).

Concerned about the possible impacts of various strains, the USDA Forest Service sponsored studies in Brazil. Based on their findings, Hawai`i adopted a new permanent rule in 2020. It prohibited importation of plants or foliage of all Myrtaceae species.

Also, APHIS proposed in November 2019 a federal regulation to support the state’s action through its NAPPRA authority. However, it took seven years to resolve regulators’ concerns about the possible presence and virulence of various strains. During this time importation of high-risk materials was not prohibited. As of this writing, it has been 18 months since APHIS proposed the NAPPRA listing, so federal rules still allow imports of high-risk material.

a surprisingly bad outbreak of rust on ‘ōhi‘a in 2016; cause unclear but possibly related to extremely wet weather; photo by J.B. Friday

Meanwhile, the focus of on-the-ground conservation and restoration efforts in Hawai`i has shifted to different pathogens, those causing rapid ‘ōhi‘a death dontmovefirwood.org

In Australia and New Zealand, federal officials determined within months of detection that myrtle rust was too widespread to be eradicated. They now focus on trying to prevent introduction of additional strains. Within the country, Australia prohibits movement of Myrtaceae (hosts of myrtle rust) to the two states so far free of the pathogen (South and West Australia). However, some scientists believe enforcement of these regulations is too lax. In New Zealand, nurseries are reported to be very careful to produce plants free of the pathogen. Is this sufficient?

The Australian government also funds seed collection and other ex situ conservation efforts. But little funding has been available even for impact studies. In Australia, funding from both state (New South Wales) and federal authorities became available only after designation of three plant species as endangered. The federal government also has not designated myrtle rust as a “key threatening process,” which would have opened access to significant funds and possibly prompted more vigorous regulatory efforts. The rust is included as part of the process “novel biota threat to biodiversity”, but scientists and activists consider this to be insufficient. A conservation strategy https://www.anpc.asn.au/myrtle-rust/ was developed by a coalition of non-governmental organizations and state experts. While never adopted by the federal government, this plan became the basis for a state strategy adopted by New South Wales in 2018 – eight years after the pathogen was first detected. For a thorough discussion of weaknesses in the Australian phytosanitary system’s response to the myrtle rust introduction, see Carnegie and Pegg 2018, full citation at the end of this blog.

In June 2021, the Australian Center for Invasive Species Solutions (CISS) and the office of the Chief Environmental Biosecurity Officer (CEBO) released a revised National Environment and Community Biosecurity RD&E Strategy. The sponsors sought feedback on the strategy from biosecurity and biodiversity researchers, investors, practitioners, the community, government and industry. Comments are due by 16 July 2021. The strategy is posted at https://haveyoursay.awe.gov.au/necbrdes

In New Zealand, the science plan for myrtle rust was described as advisory. The little funding available precludes resistance breeding and seed collection. There is not even a national program to track the rust’s spread.

Difficulties in Assessing Impact

Myrtle rust affects largely new growth of host plants, including flowers and seedlings and root sprouts. Thus, in many – but not all – host species the threat is primarily to reproduction rather than immediate mortality of mature plants. This delay in impacts complicates assessments of the threat posed by the rust.

NGO Action in Australia

After several years’ effort to build a broader coalition to support implementation of the NGO Action Plan, the Plant Biosecurity Science Foundation sponsored an international workshop in March 2021. The goal was to increase understanding of the rust and its impact and who is doing what. Time was devoted to discussions on how coordinate efforts to both raise awareness and spur government action. State and federal officials played prominent roles in both preparation of the Action Plan and the workshop – and did not shy away from criticizing Australia’s handling of the threat. The descriptions of myrtle rust’s impacts presented at the conference were much more dire than those of a few years ago. Information on impacts has accumulated slowly due to the few scientists doing the work. See https://www.apbsf.org.au/myrtle-rust/

Greater alarm about this pathogen is warranted.

Australia – Evidence of Disaster

According to speakers at the workshop, myrtle rust is causing an expanding disaster in Australia, where the flora is dominated by Myrtaceae. As of spring 2021, myrtle rust is widespread and well established in several native ecosystems in the eastern mainland states of New South Wales and Queensland and part of the Northern Territory. The disease has been detected in Victoria and Tasmania but impact is limited to urban gardens. It has not yet been detected in South or Western Australia. At this time, 382 of Australia’s Myrtaceae species – in 57 genera – are known to host the rust. Three species have been officially listed as critically endangered. Rhodamnia rubescens and Rhodomyrtus psidioides are formerly widespread understory trees in rainforests. Lenwebbia sp. is narrowly endemic, growing in stunted cloud forests on clifftops in a single mountain range. However, experts predict extinction of 16 rainforest species within a generation. (For comparison, only 12 plant species in Australia have become extinct since arrival of the first Europeans 200 years ago.) Several speakers at the conference stressed the speed at which rust is putting plant taxa in peril. Wetlands dominated by Melaleuca are apparently under immediate threat.

[For a thorough discussion of the rust’s impact on plant communities, see Carnegie and Pegg 2018, full citation at the end of this blog.]

New Zealand The vulnerability of each of the 27 – 30 native plant species remains unclear three years after the rust’s introduction.

New Caledonia The highly endemic flora of this small island group appears to be at great risk.

In Hawai`i, the rust has devastated one endangered plant species (Eugenia koolauensis) and damaged a non-endangered congener, E. reinwardtiana. The strain currently on the Islands does not threaten the dominant native tree species, ‘ōhi‘a (Metrosideros polymorpha).

Southern Africa

*Syzygium cordatum* South African plant in the Myrtaceae; photo courtesy of Bram van Wyk

South Africa has 24 native plant species in the Myrtaceae. I have been unable to learn the vulnerability of these species to the rust. South Africa relies heavily on plantation of Eucalyptus, some species of which might be vulnerable to the rust. The variant of the rust detected in South Africa 2013 is unique.

*Hetropyxis* sp. – South African plant in the Myrtacae; photo by Daniel L. Nikrent

Posted by Faith Campbell

SOURCES

Angus J. Carnegie, A.J. and G.S. Pegg. 2018. Lessons from the Incursion of Myrtle Rust in Australia. Annual Review of Phytopathology · August 2018

Jung, T.; Horta Jung, M.; Webber, J.F.; Kageyama, K.; Hieno, A.; Masuya, H.; Uematsu, S.; Pérez-Sierra, A.; Harris, A.R.; Forster, J.; et al.. The Destructive Tree Pathogen Phytophthora ramorum Originates from the Laurosilva Forests of East Asia. J. Fungi 2021, 7, 226. https://doi.org/10.3390/ open access!

Rising risk to East Coast as Ship Capacities Expand

They’re coming! As I have blogged frequently over the past year, imports through ports other than Los Angeles-Long Beach are rising – and with them the risk of pest introductions.

Demonstrating this phenomenon is the fact that the largest container ship ever to call on the North American East Coast will arrive this week. The “Marco Polo” can carry 16,022-TEU (twenty-foot equivalent; a standardized measure of container capacity). It is scheduled to call at Nova Scotia today (May 17), then work its way down the coast to New York-New Jersey on May 20, Norfolk on May 23, Savannah on May 26, and Charleston on May 28. Most of these ports have a history of receiving tree-killing pests: beech bark disease, beech leaf weevil, and brown spruce longhorned beetle at Halifax, NS; Asian longhorned beetle at New York and possibly Charleston; redbay ambrosia beetle at Savannah.

The ship’s owner CMA CGM (a French company operating around the globe), also holds the previous record for the largest ship to visit the east Coast: the 15,072-TEU “Brazil” called at New York-New Jersey in September 2020. CMA CGM North America President Ed Aldridge credited the ports’ significant increases in capacity for allowing the increased volume.

CMA CGM is focused on imports from the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Ships headed to the North American East Coast are transitting the Suez Canal.

CMA CGM also operates the “Jules Verne” with a capacity of 16,022-TEU; and the “Ben Franklin” at 18,000-TEU. These ships serve trans-Pacific trade.

During the first 10 months of 2020, 15% of vessel calls were by ships with capacities of 10,000-TEU or higher, up from 11% in 2019.

Source:

https://www.joc.com/maritime-news/container-lines/cma-cgm/largest-ship-call-east-coast-arrive-next-week-cma-cgm_20210514.html?utm_source=Eloqua&utm_medicum=email&utm_campaign=CL_JOC%20Daily%205/17/21%20_PC00000_e-production_E-98549_TF_0517_0617